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REYNOLDS HISTORICAL
GENEALOGY COLLECTION

ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY

5 9416

)11

166

7.1

L70

THE MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

WI I.I.I AM H. LIGHTNER, WARREN UPHA3I,

President. Secretary.

THE WEATHERING OF ABORIGINAL
STONE ARTIFACTS
NO. L

A CONSIDERATION OF
THE PALEOLITHS OF KANSAS

{Illustrated by 20 figures and 19 half-tone plates

By ST. H. WINCH ELI..

Col Iet t ion s of the Minnesota Historical Society,
Volume XVI, Tart I.

ST. PAUL, MINN.
1013.

St. Paul, Minn., Oct. 10, 1912.

President W. EC. Lightxer.

My Dear Sir :
In accordance with the recommendation of the Mu-
seum Committee a manuscript entitled "A considera-
tion of the Paleoliths of Kansas" is herewith offered
for publication It is a further result of the examina-
tion of the collections amassed by the late J. V.
B rower.

Respectfully,

N. H. Winch ell.

Museum Committee.

Newton H. Winchell
Francis J. Schaefer

Olin D. Wheeler
Harold Harris

Warren Upham, E.r-Officio.

Publication Committee.

William G. White
Harold Harris
Chas. W. Ames

Henry S. Fairchild
Jas. H. Baker
Warren Upham

Ex-Offkio.

t/-V7

DEDICATION.

To Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott,
Trenton, N. J.

I beg the honor and the privilege of inscribing
to yon the following work on the "Weathering of
Aboriginal Stone Artifacts:7 Never having met
you, not knoicing you by sight, I can assure you
that it is only because of my admiration of your
skill, and your persistence through more than forty
years, in describing the occurrence of paleolithic
stone artifacts in the Delaware valley, that I am
moved to offer you this testimonial of esteem.

N. H. Winchell.

St. Paul, Minn., April 30, 1913.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2013

http://archive.org/details/collectionsofmin161 minn

PREFACE. Vll

Preface.

One of the most interesting-, as well as the most im-
portant, questions that concern man is that of his
antiquity. In America, as in Europe, for many years
it has been much discussed, but in America archeolo-
gists are not in as good concord on the fundamental
ideas as in Europe. The leading American authorities
are about where the European were prior to the dis-
coveries of Boucher de Perthes. That is about the
same as saying that in America authoritative archeo-
logical opinion on this subject is about sixty-six years
behind that of Europe. It is true that human artifacts
in the river gravel at Trenton, Xew Jersey, were an-
nounced in 1872 by Dr. C. C. Abbott, who is the
Boucher de Perthes of America, and have been de-
scribed elsewhere, but to this day all discoveries of
pre-Glacial human remains, whether bones or imple-
ments, have been discredited and discarded by the
powerful influences that are localized at Washington,
and the existence of man in North America earlier
than "the Glacial epoch'', i. e. the Wisconsin ice-epoch,
is tabooed. The effect of this leading has been so pro-
nounced that in most of the museums of the country,
outside of New England, it is vain to search for any
labels that indicate pre-Glacial man in America.

There is a singular anomaly in the course of numer-
ous American archeologists in this matter. Admitting
that European study of aboriginal stone artifacts ante-

Viii WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

dated American, they accept the conclusions of
European experts as to the names and uses which
they ascribe to American specimens, adopt the terms
applied to their culture stages, their classification and
definitions; practically therefore European archeology
has been transplanted to America, though with some
extensions and modifications. But, the signs of age
when discovered in America are rejected, in such a
manner that, to be philosophic and reasonable, it be-
comes necessary, in order to justify such rejection, to
assume that in America, the difference of longitude, or
of climate, or manner of exposure to the atmospheric
elements, was so powerful that we cannot expect in
America the same results as in Europe. If that be
true, it is an important new element in natural physics,
and were it to be applied generally it would be incum-
bent on American geologists and geographers, as well
as .all natural scientists, to reconstruct the sciences
which are current, and to build up from the foundation
a special code of American sciences. But the work
which follows is based on the assumption that natural
forces have operated in America in the same manner
as in Europe, and 'have produced identical results.
The patmation of flint is accepted in Europe as an in-
dication of great age. When found on similar arti-
facts in America it has the same significance. Not
only do European specimens show the well-known pat-
mation indicative of Paleolithic date, but African and
Asiatic stone implements, when they possess this evi-
dence also are classed uniformly with European Pale-
oliths. It seems that, in order to be justifiable in the
rejection of this evidence in America, the burden of

PREFACE.

proof rests upon the objectors. They should show,
either that what in this work is called patination is
not patination, or that different natural causes have
produced in America those results which in Europe
are ascribed to patination.

No one, reading American literature devoted to
stone artifacts, can fail to notice the paucity of de-
scriptions and discussions made from the geologist's
point of view; that too when the nature of the speci-
mens and their environments were more or less geo-
logical, and when a careful examination by a compe-
tent geological observer would have added materially
to their significance and to their value. The archeolo-
gists of America have usually not been equipped with
geological training. They have gathered, with great
assiduity a vast number and variety of aboriginal im-
plements, and have assigned them in many cases to
their supposed uses. They have filled their cases
with "beautiful " specimens, and have dazzled the visi-
tor with skillful arrangements from shelf to shelf.
They have had little .concern for the question of the
relative ages of these specimens, and usually they
have considered all their ' collections from American
localities as the product of the historic Indian. More
recently, as the question of Paleolithic man in America
has been revived, while discerning the need of geologi-
cal investigation, they have still been content to sub-
mit the inquiry to archeologists who made no pretense
of geological skill, or to geologists who, with super-
ficial and insufficient investigation, were satisfied to
corroborate the views of their archeological associates.
Thus in some notable instances the geological evidence

X WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

of the antiquity of man in America has been glozed
over, and in others seems to have been distorted and
ignored ; at the same time geologists generally are too
intent on the facts of their own science to give heed to
that dim border-line which separates man from geol-
ogy. It will be probably many years before the Pleis-
tocene relations of man in America can be worked out
with that particularity which has been attained by re-
cent work in Europe.

If there be one portion of American geological his-
tory which more than any of the others has undergone
modification in recent years, -as geologists have pushed
their investigations to greater detail, it is that which
is called Glacial Geology, or, in broader terms, Pleisto-
cene Geology. In this remarkable modification it is
notable that in all cases, as new features have been
discovered, it has been necessary to lengthen rather
than shorten the time involved. Thus, the "Glacial
Period" which was at first believed to have been a
simple, single and unique phase of Pleistocene time,
has been doubled and quadrupled in its recurrent
phases, and hence has been doubled and quadrupled
in its complexities, as well as in the time needed to
warrant such physical revolutions as are evident.
Some of the momentous topographic changes of the
western United States have been effected by volcanic
action and by erosion, since the close of the Tertiary.
Thousand of square miles have been covered by vol-
canic lava floods and have been given a new topogra-
phy by post-Tertiary erosion. It is only recent that
it has been found necessary to take cognizance of this
great lapse of time since the close of the Tertiary,

PREFACE. XI

and it has not yet been found possible, in all cases,
even to distinguish between the later Tertiary and
the early Pleistocene ; nor is it to be wondered at
that in some instances no notice whatever has been
taken of this long Pleistocene period, and that in the
discussion of human antiquity no room has been left
for the existence of man between the Tertiary and
the historic Indian, i. e. between the Tertiary and the
Xeolithic.

If the writer has succeeded in showing, in the pages
of this little work, that man existed in Kansas through-
out at least the Glacial period, with its many phases,
he has opened the door through which proof may flow
eventually that man occupied the entire Xorth Ameri-
can continent during the same period and that he wit-
nessed many of the convulsions of the western states
which were marked by violent volcanism, as well as
the. more gradual changes of topography consequent
on floods and their resulting erosions, which marked
the successive Glacial epochs.

Scientific workers in America are not numerous, and
they are often handicapped by poverty of resources
and of time. They do not always agree in their con-
clusions, but there can not be found a body of men
more unreservedly devoted to the single cause of the
advancement of truth. They are subject in their re-
searches only to errors of judgment, not to lapses of
integrity. Therefore whatever their differences on
scientific questions they should be credited with hon-
esty o"f motive and conviction, for however great those
differences it requires only the further prosecution of
research to prove where the truth lies. It behooves

Xii WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

them to be patient and conciliatory with each other,
and to have constant willingness to accept new facts
whenever and wherever they appear, and whatever
may be their bearing on their own views.

The writer contemplates a similar treatment of hu-
man implements from other states in the near future,'
and he asks the co-operation of American archeolo-
gists.

A brief announcement of these results was pub-
lished in Records of the Past, July-August, 1912. A
more extended account was presented at Geneva, to
the Congres international d'Anthropologie et d'Arche
ologie prehistoriques, September, 1912. They were
discussed in a paper read in December, 1912, at Cleve-
land O., before Section H of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, and in January, 1913,
at Milwaukee, before the Wisconsin Archeological
Society and before the Minnesota Academy of Science
at Minneapolis.

N. H. WlNCHELL.

St, Paul, April IS, 1913.

CONTENTS.

Preliminary Note 1

I. A consideration of the Paleoliths of Kansas 3

1. The Quiviran implements were not from the

Wichita 6

Nature of the Quiviran chert. Patination. 6

Comparison with European Paleoliths 11

Effect of the Ice Age 21

2. The>- have been secondarily chipped by later

people 25

Character of the Paleolithic artifacts 26

3. Location of these artifacts 38

4. Relation to the Glacial drift 39

5. Aqueous deposits of the Lower Kansas

valley 39

6. Mingling of Paleolithic and Neolithic arti-

facts , 40

II. Cultural stages of stone chipping correlated with

Glacial stages 41

Supplemental Note 44

III. What were the tribes met in the Kansas valley

by Coronado in 1541? 44

IV. Early Man and his cotemporary fauna in Kansas.. 48

Explanation of Plates 58

V. Critical working observations on some Kansas

specimens '. . . ' 68

Paleolithic culture in Neolithic time 70

Iron Mould 72

Variation of the chert 75

Criteria of the different ages of Weathering.... 76

Gradation of Culture stages 79

Critical observations 81

Significance of a Gloss 81

Persistence of Paleolithic Culture 82

Relative number of Early Neolithic specimens.. 83

Weather scales are sometimes white and some-
times brown 83

Unfinished edges on "Turtles" 85

: v.,

Xiv WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Early Paleolithic, Paleolithic and Early Neo-
lithic chipping on the same specimen 87

Successive weather scales 89

Uniformity of the Kansas chert 90

Paleolithic or Earl}- Neolithic? 90

Loss of a Glossy Surface 91

Pink chert * 92

The Tomahawk People 92

Incipient scraper 93

Neolithic "Turtle" 93

Limitation of the terms Paleolithic and Early

Neolithic 93

Paleolithic culture continued in Neolithic time.. 94

Tomahawks have never been writhed 9G

The Scraper 96

Different signs of age 97

Continuation of Paleolithic culture 98

Lefthandedness of Early Neolithic Man 99

Imperfect Harahey Knives 101

Different rates of Patination 102

Early Neolithic preferable to Pre-Neolithic 103

VI. Work of Dr. W. Allen Sturge in England 101

VII. Classification of Kansas artifacts by culture stages 113

The simplest artifact an edged tool 113

Knives 115

Gouges 117

Scrapers 118

Tomahawks 120

Leaves or Blades 121

Celts 122

Explanation of Plate XII 125

Explanations of Plate XIII 127

Points, Neoltihic No. 1 12S

Explanation of Plate XIV 131

VIII. An Archeological Reconnoissance 133

The Kansas valley, Elevations 133

In other western Museums and Private

collections 151

Rotting of chert 151

Resume and Conclusions 169

Index 177

Northeastern Kansas

Showing fhe Relation of the

CHERT DEPOSITS
to the

KANSAN MORAINE

Northeastern Kansas

Showing fhe PelaHon of fhe
CHERT DEPOSITS

PRELIMINARY NOTE.

The results presented in this paper, and the evidence on
which they are based, were theoretically anticipated by the
writer prior to the examination of the artifacts. Indeed they
were first confirmed by an earlier cursory handling of a
large collection of "Mandan"' flint artifacts collected by Mr.
Brower for the Minnesota Historical Society; but at that
time it was inconvenient to enter upon the discussion. Sim-
ilar conclusions seem to be warranted by the weathering of
some Oklahoma specimens. In later discussion these facts
will be presented.

The main purpose of this note is to call attention to the
fact that Mr. Brower was fully aware of the important bear-
ing of the rude culture of the "Quivira" on the question of
paleolithic man in America, as shown by the following quo-
tation from his Harahey (p. 109):

"I was so impressed by the developments of unusual in-
terest, indicating the existence of two stages of ancient cul-
ture near the Kansas chert beds, that a series of the chipped
implements of each nation was submitted for inspection to
the authorities of the United States National Museum at
Washington. Dr. Thomas Wilson has replied quite fully,
and that portion of his last communication which relates par-
ticularly to the Quivira and Harahey implements is available
to indicate some of the difficulties encountered.

" 'Smithsonian Institution,
.U. S. National Museum,
Washington, D. C, Feb. 3, 1S99.

Mr. J. V. Brower.

St. Paul, Minn.
Dear Sir: —

I do not know what your discoveries of new imple-
ments and different stages of culture in the same neigh-
borhood is going to delvelop. but it is surely remarkable
and opens up a new vista which should be pursued and
explored to the very end. I conclude that you are the
only individual qualified to make the investigation, and
I think the responsibility of pursuing it will rest with
you.

Yours very truly,

Thomas Wilson, Curator,

Division of Prehistoric Archeology.

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

"Eminent archeologists, appealed to for assistance and
advice in the preparation of these papers, are unable to
definitely conclude new questions which have arisen during
the continuance of these explorations in Kansas, and the fact
that some of the rude implements found there indicate no
higher culture than existed probably 50,000 years ago in the
Somme Valley,* France, places a responsibility upon me
which I have been cautious to assume, on account of the
wide diversity of opinions in archeologic matters relating
particularly to American anthropology."

It is in continuation of the examination of the specimens
gathered by Mr. Brower, and the work which they entail
upon the Minnesota Historical Society, that the writer has
prepared this paper. To the late Dr. Thomas Wilson must
be given the credit, as appears from the foregoing and from
other excerpts from his letters which have been published
by Mr. Brower, of detecting the paleolithic character of the
rude artifacts assigned by Mr. Brower to a tribe of historic
Indians. Mr. Brower shrank from the labor and the re-
sponsibility of the task pointed out by Dr. Wilson, of pur-
suing the "new vista" opened up by the discovery "to the
very end." Hence the subject has remained dormant for
thirteen years. N. H. W.

August, 1912.

*"Primitive man in the Somme Valley, by Professor W'ar-
ren Upham, Vol. XXII. p. 350, American Geologist, Decem-
ber, 1S9S. Professor Upham conducted a critical examina-
tion of the locality mentioned in 1S97, by observations based
on Glacial Geology." -

THE WEATHERING OF ABORIGINAL STONE

ARTIFACTS.

L A CONSIDERATION OF THE PALEOLITHS

OF KANSAS.

Without calling in question the identification of
Ouivira by Mr. J. V. Brower, and the distinction to
which he called attention between the artifacts found
in one part of the area and those found in another,
which he has delimited on his various maps in
"Ouivira, " "Harahey," and in "Kansas," there are cer-
tain important other facts which seem to require a
profound modification of his archeological reasoning.

1. The coarsely chipped large artifacts which Mr.
Brower attributed to the Quivirans (Wichita Caddo)
are not characteristic of that branch of the Caddo
people, nor of any other branch, nor of any existing
Indian people of America. They are distinctly paleo-
lithic and manifest all the characteristic features of the
paleolithic artifacts of Europe as stated by Evans in
his work, "Ancient Stone implements of Great
Britain."

2. They have been secondarily chipped by a later
people, and this later people have left their work
strewn up and down the Kansas valley and its tribu-
tary valleys. This later people may have done inde-
pendent quarrying in the cherty limestone.

3. These paleolithic artifacts are south from, but
quite near, the oldest known glacial moraine of the

4 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

ice-age, the northeastern corner of Kansas having been
invaded by the Kansas ice-sheet. An outline map of
this section of Kansas has been constructed by the aid
of Prof. J. E. Todd, showing the Glacial geology.
(See Plate-map).

4. The area of the Quivirans, as marked out by
Mr. Brower, takes in a part of the elevated lands
which are underlain by the chert-bearing limestone,
which was not disturbed by the ice-movement, nor
covered by a sheet of Glacial drift of an)- kind.

5. The area of the Haraheyans (of Brower) is fur-
ther north and further east, and was in part involved
in the events of the near-by Glacial moraine, at least
so far as the abundant waters from the dissolving ice

were able to spread a sheet of gravel and sand, or of
loess, along the valleys. Hence

6. The rude artifacts from the chert-bearing up-
land when not wholly buried from sight, are found
mixed, in the valleys, with the more finished artifacts
of the later people, some of the former being partially
(and frequently wholly) re-chipped.

7. The stone artifacts show therefore two (or
three) ages of sto'ne-working, one being perhaps pre-
Glacial, or inter-Glacial (if not both) and one post-
Glacial. The corresponding inter-Glacial terms would
probably be Pleistocene (or Af Ionian), Buchanan and
Recent.

There are several other interesting propositions that
might here be given, but they will appear more reason-
ably in connection with the circumstantial discussion
of these, and their perfect adjustment with these will
serve to elucidate and confirm these. Air. Brower's

BROW Eli'S COLLECTION IN KANSAS. 5

great work in establishing Quivira in the Kansas
river valley, and having it marked by a granite monu-
ment at Logan grove,* cannot be called in question.
It is in his attempt to adjust his discovery with discov-
ered archeologic facts, and with aboriginal history and
tradition, that the writer thinks that some change
should be made — a change, moreover, which, if Air.
Brower had apprehended it, he would have welcomed,
since it furnishes another confirmation of one of the
leading ideas of his archeological work — the existence
of pre-Glacial man in x\merica.

Near the close of Air. Brower's work in Kansas, he
collected, boxed and sent to St. Paul, with the aid of
Judge J. T. Keagy of Alma, living in the valley of
Mill Creek, in Wabaunsee county, a large number of
those coarse artifacts. This collection came from
"Quivira" village sites in Morris, Geary, Riley and
Wabaunsee counties, and from various isolated spots,
and in the course of examination of Mr. Brower's ex-
tensive collection has just been reached (January,
1912). The sites are often well up toward the crest
where the uplands break down in undulating slopes
and descend into the valleys. The upland divides be-
tween adjacent creeks (such as Humbolt and McDow-
ell) on the northwesterly side of the range, are narrow,
and it was easy for the people who lived on the north-
westerly side to pass the crown of the upland and find
suitable sites on the upper slopes of the southeastern
side. (V. Kansas, pp. 101-102).

*Logan Grove is on the land of Capt. Robert Henderson,
near Junction City. Later .Mr. 1. rower was instrumental in
having similar commemorative monuments erected at Man-
hattan, Alma and Herrington.

6 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

1. THE "QUIVIRAN" IMPLEMENTS WERE NOT
FROM THE WICHITA.

Taking the foregoing propositions in numerical
order, it is not at all necessary to dwell on the first
part of No. 1. Probably every student of the present
Indians will admit that the "Ouiviran" artifacts de-
scribed by Mr. Brower are notably different from
those now in use, or in use when America was dis-
covered. That they are distinctly Paleolithic however
requires demonstration.

Nature of the Quivim Chert. Patination.

This chert is embraced in nodules and broken lay-
ers in a magnesian limestone of the age of the Coal
Measures, or the Permo-Carboniferous. This lime-
stone does not effervesce freely in cold acid, but dis-
solves on being boiled. It is apparently also quite
siliceous, and in this condition is cemented firmly up-
on the surfaces of some of the coarse artifacts that
have been made from the chert.* The chert and the
surrounding limestone are fossiliferous with small
organisms, some of which are coralline (crinoids and
cyathophylloids). rarely brachiopodous or ostracodous
and bryozoan, and with many siliceous spicules ap-
parently from sponges. The chert has been called
blue, but it is prevailingly, at least on the outside, of
a dark gray color, with denser portions which are more
blue. P>esides these shades, which may be considered

*This condition of the limestone chemically is more allied
to chert than to limestone, but its grain and its color exclude
it from the designation chert.

NATURE OF QUIVIRA CHERT. 7

as variations of one color, there is a notable amount of
a light gray color, and this light gray is not due to
atmospheric weathering of any recent date, for these
two penetrate each other in irregular patches and
sometimes in a manner resembling sedimentary lamin-
ation. As chert it is not very siliceous. It is easily
chipped. Perhaps one eighth of all the coarse arti-
facts collected are made entirely of this light-colored
chert, and more than one-half of them show both
colors. Long weathering turns both these colors usu-
ally to a still lighter color. This light-colored chert
was noted by Mr. Brower, who "considered it of an in-
ferior quality, and as prevailing in the western part of
Quivira, along the eastern boundary of the Dakota
sandstone. This alteration may be attributed there-
fore to pre-Cretaceous exposure, and perhaps to the
atmospheric elements, and it may be expected that
the limestone, where now overlain by the Dakota
sandstone, would show, on deep exploration, a large
amount of this altered chert. It is apparently from
this that numerous Missouri artifacts have been
made.* The darker-colored chert, further east, shows,
by the manner of transition to light-colored, that the
latter is only a phase of the former.

Paleolithic Wcath cviiig. W eathering of a more su-
perficial kind is notable on nearly all the coarse arti-
facts of Quivira. This later weathering requires care-
ful consideration. It manifests various characteris-
tics, viz :

*The "points" figured on "plate 3 of arrow points" "Abor-
igines of Minnesota'' made of "light colored chert" illustrare
this kind of Kansas chert, and can be referred confidently to
eastern Missouri, as noted on page 415.

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

(a) . Patina consisting of a superficial change of
color. The dark gray and the blush-gray cherts have
a tendency to become much lighter colored, approach-
ing white (and sometimes light brown) and the light
gray has a tendency to become yellowish, passing
through buff to yellowish brown.

(b) . Patina consisting of a polished, or glossy sur-
face. This glossy surface is usually more pronounced
on one side of an artifact or chip than on the other,
as if one side had been less exposed to the atmospheric
agents. It is often visible on both sides, but there are
some that do not show it noticeably on either side,
although belonging by culture in the same class. This
glossiness of course has obliterated all the fine, sharp
angularities due to the fracturing of the grain of the
chert, but it has not destroyed the coarser angularities
(aretes), such as are produced by the intersections of
fracture planes. It smoothes off the edges and de-
scends into the main undulations of the chipped sur-
faces. Some have described this glossines as a ''bur-
nishing," but if it were produced by a burnisher, it
was one that accommodated itself to the inequalities
of a very uneven surface. On making a new chipping
from one of these glossy specimens, so directed as to
cause an intersection of the new surface with the
glossy surface, the contrast presented by them is quite
evident. The fresh surface is dull gray, does not re-
flect the light from the window and has the feel of a
fine roughness, while the old surfaces reflect the light
successively as the turning of the specimen brings
them into the proper angles.

KINDS OF PAGINATION, 9

This patina, whether change of color or loss of the
fine asperity of the original fracture, is very thin. Its
thickness usually cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
Frequently both characteristics are seen on the same
specimen, and on the same surface, indeed usually they
go in company.

(c) . There is also another form of patina, which
appears on the grayish-blue specimens. In this case,
while there is no marked glossiness there is a change
of color throughout a surface layer about as thick as
card-board, or letter paper, the color assumed being a
dirty gray and brownish gray. This change screens
entirely the bluish tint of the interior, and when a chip
is removed not only the color of the coating can be
seen but also its thickness. This form of alteration
is due probably to protection from the impact of at-
mospheric agents, by burial beneath a rubbish of chert
and soil, and its significance is nearly the same, as to
age, as the forms (a) and (b), but in numerous cases it
is older than fa) and (b).

(d) . Occasionally can be seen scattered spangles
and non-reflecting specks of what appears to be black
oxide of manganese, but this has not been analyzed,
and is not common.

(e) . There is also a persistent thin dirt-colored
patina which cannot be washed off, nor removed writh
a brush and warm water. This is very common on
all the old surfaces, but is absent from modern arti-
facts. It is later than the glossy surfaces. It is only
in this patina that have been observed (though rather
doubtfully) the peculiar spots described by Evans

10 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

(op. cit. p. 575) "caused," as supposed by him, "by
lying for ages in contact with other stones."

(f). In addition to the foregoing there is, though
rarely, a calcareous scale which is usually considered
evidence of a Glacial age. This I have called a "gla-
cial patina" (Records of the Past, Vol. VIII, p. 251) and
it is found on pebbles gathered from the drift in the
Mill Creek valley. The most remarkable instance of
the preservation of this calcareous crust on an artifact
is seen on specimen Xo. 520G, of the Brower register,
and it is probably due to the size of this specimen that
it is well preserved. It is a large, egg-shaped, yet
pointed, leaf or turtle, having a length of ten inches,
a width of six and three-fourths inches and thickness
of three and a half inches. It was coarsely chipped
to form, the outline for an implement of its kind (if it
may be called such) being about perfect. The chipped
facets are large, and usually do not show, on either
side, a pronounced gloss, though it is quite plain on
some of the facets. This calcareous scale is scattered
throughout both surfaces, in spots of varying size, and
has apparently been removed from much of the surface
by some means unknown, occupying now probably not
more than one-fifth. This large specimen was prob-
ably covered and screened from friction by the accu-
mulation of a layer of debris composed of quarry
refuse or surface glacial wash-gravel (or sand) during
the prevalence of the flooded waters. It may be in-
ferred therefore that this glacial patina has the same
origin and probably the same date as the calcareous
stalagmite (as described below) which in European
caverns covers the paleolithic implements and bones

GLACIAL PATINA. 11

of the cave-earth, and it is a remarkable illustration
of the similarity of the effect of the ice-epoch on op-
posite sides of the Atlantic.

(g). On many specimens can be seen a sprinkling
of limonite, which is in streaks and spots, usually more
plentiful on one side than the other. This is accepted
as a sign of long weathering, probably with the limon-
ated side lying downward.

Comparison With European Paleoliths.

In the Brower collection are several European Pale-
olithic specimens obtained from the Smithsonian In-
stitution. Two of these are shown on the accompany-
ing plates (I and II) by photo-engraving. One (a) is
from Feuardent, Loire Bassin, France. (No. 35122 of
the Smithsonian register, and 2229 of the Brower reg-
ister of the Historical Society) and the other (b) from
the drift at Thetford, England, (No. 11083 of the
Smithsonian register and 222S of the Brower register).

The former (a), approximates the general shape of
a "scraper" but is too large for that designation, and,
besides, its larger end is' not artificiallly beveled on one
side in a manner like the mono-oblique beveling of the
conventional scraper, although a part of the old outer
surface which came in contact with the rock matrix
in which as a chert nodule it was orisnnallv surround-
ed, slopes toward the base, with a curving contour
so as to give it the general shape of the small Neo-
lithic scrapers of America. Its general surficial color
is a mottling of buff-yellow and gray of differing
shades, these colors blending into each other. A few

12 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

recent chips have been flaked from the edges and

from the small end. revealing the fact that the interior
color is a mottling of gray of differing shades, and

Outline of a Pnleolith from Feuardeut, France.

COMPARISON WITH EUROPEAN PALEOLITHS. 13

proving that the yellow and buff tones and the glossi-
ness have been acquired by weathering'. These ac-
quired tones do not pierce the substance of the chert

Outline of a Paleolith from Feuardent, France.

14 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

to any appreciable thickness, but the oldest surface,
which came next to the rock matrix, is changed to a
nearly white color to a depth of one thirty-second part
of an inch to one-sixteenth part, and its texture is
finely granular and harsh to the finger-nail. This yel-
low-buff color, which is more pronounced on one side
(a) than the other, must be considered, therefore, as a
patina formed by long weathering. It is not a glacial
coating, but a weather-coating.

The other side of this specimen (a') likewise evinces
its age by a similar alteration of color, but much less
marked. Indeed this side 'is almost wholly mottled
gray, with only a faint clouding by buff. All over this
side, however, are small scattered specks of limonite,
or limonitic manganese, of about the size of a common
pin head. This side was probably turned downward
during a long period while the other side was exposed
to the sun and the friction of atmospheric precipitation
and wind. Both sides are ''polished" or "burnished"
but the a side is the smoother. In no case is there any
perceptible (though there probably is an actual) loss
of sharpness at the angular edges of the flaking, al-
though that sharpness is sometimes dulled by small
chippings due to use and to rough handling.

The specimen is a typical Paleolithic implement,
judging by the roughness of the flaking, no less than
by the age which it evinces, or the source record which
accompanies it.

2. The second European Paleolith selected for
comparison (b) is a rude and apparently purposeless
implement, still more altered by long weathering, hav-
ing almost uniformly the same yellowish color, but

COMPARISON* WITH EUROPEAN PALEOLITHS. 15

slightly showing' a shading toward dark amber color.
This specimen is apparently only a part of the original
implement, which was broken before it was weathered,
and corresponds to the larger end of the specimen last
described. In the same manner, and approximately
in the same part of the specimen, is preserved a por-
tion of the original matrix-surface.

On fracturing this specimen the interior color is
found to be gray, entirely like that from the Loire
Bassin. Adherent to the larger end is some rusty
grit derived from drift, cemented by limonite.

These two specimens can reasonably be taken as
typical of the chert implements which are buried in
the drift gravels of the regions mentioned,* and hence
as guides to Paleolithic specimens of the same material
found in America. The chief characteristic is the
nature of the patina. The surface of the chert is
turned to honey-yellow of varying shades, but the or-
iginal gray of the chert occasionally gives a darker
shade to the patina, and on protected surfaces it shows
through the patina and appears to be almost un-
changed. Besides this patina there is a glossy
smoothness which is superior to that of recently flaked
chert. This smoothness is not due to use as an im-
plement, for the smallest inequalities and the sharp-
ness of the flaking are preserved, and are handsomely
covered by the patina as well as by this smoothness.
It would be a misnomer to call this smoothness a

*It is at present impossible to correlate the drift of these
points with the drift epochs of America. But the deep al-
teration of the Thetford chert seems to require that the
gravels in which it was found belong- to the Kansas epoch
rather than the Wisconsin; though it may have long ante-
dated even the Kansan.

V-

16 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

"polish," if by that is meant an artificial frictional
effect. It may be a "polish" if it be allowed that the
polishing agent had no grit, and was nothing more
abrasive than wind and rain and sunshine. The speci-

Pnleolith from The t ford, Eng.

■ MP

THE

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST.

soc.

FALEOIJTH FROM FEU ARDENT, FRANCE.

■

(

PLATE I.

PALEOL1TH FROM THETFORD, ENG. Pages 13, 58.

V-

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

mm V.
* H

* * *

. » * *• »

flNP

> . .. Vx >

. * •

'it s

9* f '

-i

PALEOLITH FROM FEUARDENT, FRANCE.

v..

PLATE II.

PALEOLITH FROM THETFORD, ENG. PAGES 13, 58.

PATINA OF EUROPEAN PALEOLITHS. IT

men from England may also have had some experience
of friction in the gravel with which it was associated,
but that cannot be stated of the specimen from the
Loire Bassin. (See Plates I and II).

Paleolitlt from Theti'orri, Eng.

18 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

3. Two specimens, chert "scrapers" or flakes, Xo.
2*2.')<> of the Brovyer collection register, and Xo. 99553
of the Smithsonian Institution, from the cavern of
Le Monstier, Ye/.ere valley, France.

(d.)

Frttm the Cavern of L,e Monstier.

v..

SPECIMENS FROM LE MOUSTIEK. 19

Each of these is a single tlake. but (c) was preceded
by other Makes from the same core. They show but
little secondary chipping, and probably all of the fine
secondary chipping was produced by use as imple-
ments, since it is restricted to the long*, sharp edges, or
sides. Of these that marked (cj has a few very fine
vermicular) tubes or coatings, apparently calcareous,
and some scattering- spots of incrustation exactly com-
parable with those found by the writer adherent on
some flints taken from the McKinstry mounds in
northern Minnesota, and described by him in "Aborig-
ines of Minnesota" p. 371, probably the forms of mag-
gots accompanying the decay of flesh. That marked
(d) has no incrustation. Both of them are gray in
color, and nearly as fresh as when they were first
made. More than one-half of one side of (d) shows
however, the original old surface which was the out-
side of the nodule from which the flake was taken.
This surface is decayed to the. depth of about an
eighth of an inch and turned much lighter colored.
In general, however, the flaked surfaces of these speci-
mens show no patina nor smoothing comparable with
the same found on the drift artifacts. Xot only does
their known history but also their present condition
show that they are much more recent in origin than
the above noted drift specimens. Vet they are "prehis-
toric," in Europe : and they serve to establish the fact
that artificial cherts, at least when in caverns., do not
acquire a marked patina with the lapse of several thou-
>and years, and do not show any kind of decay. And
so far as the cave of Le Moustier is concerned, these
specimens tend to show that its inhabitants were not

20 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

contemporary with the men of the river artifacts, but
were much later. Still, according to John Evans in
his "Ancient stone implements and weapons of Great
Britain/' p. 44T, the Hint implements found in the Kent
cavern at Torquay, England, in the cave earth below
the stalagmite have ''become nearly white and have a
lustrous surface/' proving greater age than these of
Le Moustier, which may have come from nearer the
surface than the bottom of the stratum carrying the
human artifacts. A much-altered specimen described
by Evans was so situated that it must have been the
oldest of human relics found in that (Kent) cavern.
It has the shape and about the size of the Thetford
specimen above described, and this resemblance to the
river-drift implements is noted by Evans (op. cit. p.
449). A worked flint flake is altered in an identical
manner, coming from the cave earth beneath the stal-
agmite and associated with teeth of hyaena, bear and
fox.

So far as can be determined from Evans' book re-
ferred to, all the flints from the ''cave earth" are deeply
altered, and patinated.

Above the stalagmite layer, which is referred to as
an important separating datum, is a "black mould/'
and in it are found "polished"' stone implements and
others of bronze. The fauna of the cave earth, below
the stalagmite, consists almost entirely of extinct
species, cave lion, cave hyaena, cave bear, mammoth,
woolly rhinoceros, horse, urns, Irish elk, bison, etc., but
in the black mould are bones of modern species such
as dog, short-horn ox, roe-deer, sheep, goat, pig and
rabbit. It is evident that some great catastrophe in

EFFECT OF THE ICE AGE. 21

nature had taken place after the formation of the cave-
earth by which the great mammals had been extermin-
ated or expelled and. after the catastrophe, had been
succeeded by a fauna essentially modern, at least post-
Glacial.

Now, not only are the cave-earth flints similar to
those found in the river-drift, but the extinct mammal
remains of the river-drift are entirely similar to those
of the cave-earth showing a substantial cotemporane-
ity. The inference is plain that the cave earth was
accumulated in pre-Glacial (Pleistocene) time and that
in England, as in America, Pleistocene time was char-
acterized by the prevalence of the mammoth and the
lion and a large number of predaceous animals, which
became extinct with the oncoming of the Glacial
epoch.

Effect of the Ice Aye.

The ice-age was a period of flooding, in the countries
that lay south of the ice margin, and this flooding was
not confined to the time of the retreat of the ice, as
has sometimes been- supposed, but was continuous
with and dependent on the extension and existence of
the ice. That is the same as stating that it was sev-
eral thousand years in duration. It served to accumu-
late vast quantities of gravel in the valleys of all the
streams that flowed southward, away from the ice,
sweeping into them not only its own gravel product,
but much of the surface debris which was scattered
over the land beyond the ice margin prior to the ice

Tl WEATHEISING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

age. including of course human artifacts and the bones
of the great Pleistocene mammals."

The effect of the ice-age. in the caves, was the depo-
sition of the stalagmite (and stalactite) which covers
the cave-earth. The increased waters that flowed
over the lands caused more rapid solution from the
limestones and a corresponding increase of calcareous
deposition in the caves. Man if he existed then re-
treated south during the ice-age. along with the Pleis-
tocene animals, and in keeping with that migration
there is an absence of artifacts and animal remains in
the stalagmite, or at least a remarkable dearth of signs
of organic existence. "It seems to indicate a vast
period of time during which the cavern (Kent's) was
almost entirely unfrequented by man or beast."

The human implements in the cave-earth, therefore
were formed at a date almost coeval with pre-Glacial
time and contemporary with the formation of those
that are now found in the river-gravels. Those found
in the river-gravels were mingled with the Glacial
gravels about cotemporary with the ice age when the
ice existed further north and maintained a high stage
of water in all the valleys. Being in the river gravels
does not prove that they date from river-gravel time,
any more than it does for the unworked cherts with
which they are associated. The present pose of the
cave earth artifacts probably in all cases antedates
that of the river-gravel artifacts, although their orig-
ination was probably synchronous, for at the date of
the formation of the gravels both man and the animals

*The statements in this discussion of the ice-age arc based
on the assumption that there was a single ice age, or epoch,
which was the prevalent idea in England.

RIVER GRAVEL AND CAVERNS. 23

whose hones are found in the caves had either been
exterminated or had migrated to southern latitudes.
The aecuni illation of the artifacts in the gravel was ac-
complished while the stalagmite was being" formed
over the layer of cave-earth in the caverns. Thus: —

River Gravel

1. Pleistocene time, deeply

excavated valleys,
fauna of large ani-
mals, including' man
with his artifacts.

2. Glacial conditions, ex-

pulsion or extermina-
tion of the animal
species, formation of
river gravels with
their artifacts.

3. Post Glacial conditions.

Advent of present
fauna, excavation of
the present valleys
through the layer of
river gravel, forming
the terraces.

Caverns.

1. Pleistocene time, forma,
tion of cave earth.
Man inhabiting caves,
leaving bones of ani-
mals and human arti-
facts.

2. Growth of stalagmite in
the caverns, covering
the cave earth.

In-wash of soil and for-
mation of the "black
band" overlying the
stalagmite, with bones
of recent animals.

While the above expresses the general succession
of the main events, there were minor fluctuations.
Sometimes the caves were modified in form, and en-
larged, or partly filled with drift deposits through the
action of the abundant waters of stage 2 and some-
times subordinate later stalagmite layers were formed,
covering more or less of the floor. But in general
there has been such, a .desiccation of the lands, since
the Glacial period, that the growth of stalagmite has
been very slow. There is sometimes a suggestion of
a succession of Glacial epochs or Glacial stages in the
occurrence of stalagmite layers of slightly different
dates.

Evans says (Ancient Stone implvntents of Great Brit-
ain, p. 57.")): "The genuine specimens from the beds
of river-drift almost, but not quite, invariably, present
some one or more of the following characteristics;

24 weathering of stone artifacts.

glossiness of surface, dendritic markings, calcareous
incrustations and discoloration, varying', of course
with the nature of the beds in which they have lain.
The angles are often somewhat smoothed, even if not
distinctly water-worn ; and when, as happens in some
rare cases, the flint has remained unaltered in color,
and without presenting in a marked manner any of the
characteristics above specified, its surface will, on close
examination, be found dotted over at intervals with
bright glossy spots, probably those at which for ages
it has been in contact with other stones. The glossi-
ness of surface so frequent 'in these implements ap-
pears to be partly due to mechanical, and partly to
chemical causes. The polishing effect of the friction
of sand on flints in the bed of a river, or even when
lying on the surface of the ground, is well known ;
and the brilliantly polished flakes not unfrequently
found in the bed of the Seine, at Paris, and those from
the sandy heaths of Norfolk and Suffolk, afford ex-
amples of the results of this friction since Neolithic
times. In the Paleolithic implements, however, the
gloss which so frequently accompanies a structural al-
teration in the surface of the flint seems due to the
same chemical cause which has produced the altera-
tion in the structure ; and this cause as I have already
remarked, appears to have been the infiltration of
water partially dissolving the body of the flint." Of
these characters Evans regards as most reliable the
"alteration in the structure of the flint which has taken
place over the greater part, if not the whole, of its sur-
face, and the discoloration it has undergone." In
England, according to descriptions given by Evans,

RECHIPPED BY LATER PEOPLE. 25

the color change consists of the acquirement of some
yellowish, buff, or brown color, due to the penetration
of ferriferous waters from the surrounding gravels.
When these artifacts are found in ''red marl." or at no
great depth from the surface, where surface waters
could carry carbonic acid, "they frequently become
white." by the solution and removal of the coloring
elements.

The characters dwelt upon by Evans are well exem-
plified by the Faleoliths of Kansas. Xot all of the
characters can be found on all the Kansas specimens,
but they are all found in the collection. The most rare
is the manganese sprinkling. The most pronounced
are the smoothness of the surface and the change of
color. See plates I and II.

[See supplemental note p. -14.]

2. THEY HAVE BEEN SECONDARILY CHIPPED BY

LATER PEOPLE.

A priori, it may be stated that if there were a pre-
Glacial people that produced coarsely chipped arti-
facts, a later people who needed chert for their imple-
ments would resort to the same chert deposits if they
had not been covered by the Glacial drift. Such seems
to have been the case at Ouivira, and it seems also that
the later people availed themselves of the coarse chips
and rude implements of their predecessors. By how
many successive peoples the chert deposits of Kansas
were visited and quarried, it is impossible to state, or
to surmise, but the differently weathered surfaces,
when adjusted with the different degrees of culture
as indicated bv the absence of some kinds of artifacts

V-

2<> WEATHEKING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

or with the prevalence of others of higher type, seem
to denote at least four successive peoples as respon-
sible tor the artifacts of the Kansas valley. These
four Stages of culture were separated by long intervals
of time, and these intervals are to be stated by thou-
sands and probably by tens of thousands of years. It
is hence possible that by reason of wars the successive
peoples, (or tribes) were more numerous than the cul-
ture stages.

Character of the Paleolithic Artifacts.

The oldest Paleolithic art'izan seems to have been
satisfied, in the main, with the acquirement of an edge
suitable for cutting, without much concern as to the
shape of the piece. This is evinced by the preval-
ence of forms which, while possessing such edges, yet
have no secondary chipping or shaping denoting any
further purpose. Such edges are • battered by use.
and not by a secondary shaping designed to give a
purposed outline to the implement. This is evident
from the facts, that where the battered edges occur
there is no perceptible alteration of general outline,
that it occurs when the edges are straight without bat-
tering, and on projecting angles which, had the pur-
pose been to bring the piece into desired shape, could
easily have been further battered. Such specimens
are fairly represented by the large pieces shown in
Plates III and IV. These are two of the larger speci-
mens in the collection. It can easily be seen, especial-
ly on plate IV, that the secondary battering had not
the purpose to bring the edge into conformity with
the general outline. The small end of the implement

CHARACTERS OF PALEOLITHS. 27

probablv was grasped and was employed as a handle,
resulting in a rough and pronounced battering seen
at the lower left-hand end.

But while the acquirement of an edge was the fun-
damental purpose, it is also true that there was a dis-
tinct tendency to bring the specimen into an oval or
ovate-oblong shape, resulting in implements whose
shape was like those seen in plate VII. These have
been called "leaves/' or "turtles.'' The advantage of
these seems to consist in having a greater amount of
cutting edge. Here also can be seen not only a batter-
ing due to use but also a battering which was designed
to bring the specimens into the conventional shape.
The collection contains a large number of such speci-
mens, even more than of those like the forms seen
in plates III and IV. They are often broken so as to
show only one half. (Plate VII).

Besides the "turtles" one other designed form is
also seen as a doubtful Paleolithic implement. It is
shown on plate VI, numbered 5210. and its form sug-
gests its use as a tomahawk. It has been so described
by Mr. Brower with illustrations in his books Quivim
and Harahvg. He shows that both extremities were
sometimes reduced to a cutting edge and shaped alike,
in which case he styled them "double tomahawks."
Such implements have in part the glossy surface and
alteration of color, characteristic of a Paleolithic "tur-
tle." as well as the placial patina (f) and probably
are nearly or quite as old as the "turtle." It may be
seen, however, that the surfaces (in specimen Xo.
5219, in plate VI) enclosed by dotted lines were old
when the implement was formed. They have a con-

28 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

choiclal surface indicating an earlier chipping, and are

more deeply changed in color to yellowish brown and

probably in texture. Hence there is reason to suppose

that this implement may not belong with the true

Paleoliths — either that or that there was a stone age

which was pre-Paleolithic*

(Xotc. It is plainly only an arbitrary use of terms
which would consign one or the other of these classes
to the "Paleolithic" group, if by that consignment it
were designed to express parallelism with the Paleo-
lithic implements of Europe. It is the idea of the au-
thor that the term Paleolithic, used in this paper, ex-
presses immediately pre-Glacial, i. e. pre-Kansan.
There are older chipped artifacts in the Kansas valley,
however, and while these are also actually pre-Glacial
they can be distinguished as Earl// Paleolithic, and
they may be. parallel, substantially, with the European
artifacts lately styled "eolithic")

A similar distinction can be made in other figures of
plate VI. viz.: in figure 5218 the dotted line separates
a very old chipped surface, which is turned brown,
from the rest, which latter has a glossy surface and
a light-grayish, mottled, color and conchoidal frac-
tures. The interior, as shown by fractures on the re-
verse side, is gray and blue-gray. The specimen num-
bered 5217 is divisible into two ages of chipping.
That enclosed at the right lower corner is quite fresh
compared to the rest. Specimen 5216 shows, so far as
exhibited by the plate, only the very old and deeply
stained ( Early Paleolithic) surfaces described in the
last. These oldest surfaces are however plainly due
to some old chipping, as they show the characteristic
conchoidal curves ; but on the reverse side about one-

*On all the plates the word "Pre-Paleolithic" should be
changed to Early Paleolithic. ,

EFFECT OF EXPOSURE.

third of the surface is of fresher chipping-, yet showing
a glossiness due apparently to Paleolithic age. Speci-
men Xo. 5220 exhibits only the weathering which is
seen on the greater part of No. 5218. The right half
of this figure is occupied by the altered scale which
was next to the limestone matrix prior to the chipping.
This scale is about one-third of an inch thick, the
chert having been converted into a harsh, siliceous,
nearly white rock by the loss of its coloring ingredient.
Specimen 5221 is a part of an old flake. It is turned
brown all over, but is somewhat mottled. Its edge
has been used for cutting". It is not of the oldest Pale-
olithic, and may be even post-Glacial. On being brok-
en it is found to be brown throughout, and has no
superficial change of color, but it is nicely polished.
This shows that bp exposure the first change is the ac-
quirement of a polish or (/loss. Xos. 5222, 5223 and
522-1 are to be classed, as to age with Xo. 5221, made
from altered chert at first, and probably post-Kansan
Glacial. X'o. 5223 on the reverse side has a remnant
of an Early Paleolithic surface.

Besides the tendency toward the leaf or turtle shape,
there is apparent also a tendency to a rectangular
shape, but this is not so strong as the former. This
gives rude implements that approximate toward the
tomahawk, but also to squares, as illustrated in plate
V.

In plate VII are shown four artifacts which may be
taken as illustrations of the average Paleolithic im-
plement as to size and form. Those in the top of the
plate (Xo. 5108) show the patina described above as
(b) and (e), the latter, however, only on the reverse

V-

30 WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

sick- which is also less polished. Their edges have
been battered by use, their general outlines having
been produced by the coarse chipping. There is also
a sprinkling of black substance designated patina (d).
This gathers preferably in small depressions and shel-
tered angles, and on the rougher surfaces. The ob-
jects figured at the bottom of the same plate show
the same characters, but with a better glossiness and
less of the other forms of patina. That figured at the
lower right hand corner shows a large area of Early
Paleolithic date, comparable as to date with that of
No. 521G in plate VI. It is "nearly fiat and may not
be due to artificial chipping. It shows the patinae (a)
and (e), the latter entirely hiding any polish that may
have once existed. Patina (a) has the thickness of
card-paper, and is cream white. It can be seen about
the edge where it has been intersected by the later
(Paleolithic) chipping.

Rechipping of old artifacts is shown also on plate
VIII, but in this case both chippings are Paleolithic,
the older being provisionally designated here as />rc-
Palmlithw i. e. Early Paleolithic. The specimen repre-
sented in the upper left hand corner of the plate (5226)
shows two dates of chipping, at least two dates of old
weathering, the older being brown and the younger
yellowish, mottled with dark yellow and with dirty
gray. That this was an old slab, or implement, be-
fore the Paleolithic chipping is indicated by the facts
that (1) the older surfaces are inclined to each other
as if they were due to a very ancient chipping, and
(2) that on the reverse side some of the Early Paleo-
lithic surface remains and extends down to the edge

CHIPPED AT TWO DATES. 31

of the implement but showing three adjoining con-
choidal facets. The specimen (52*26) shown in the
tipper right hand corner shows, as indicated by the
dotted line, a remnant of an Early Paleolithic surface,
divided, in a similar manner, into two snrfaces which
approach each other at a broad angle and originally
must have caused a characteristic intersection and a
ridge. A trace of this old ridge remains, but the most
of it has been destroved bv the later working. This
specimen shows, at the bottom, a small Xeolithic
surface, also outlined by a dotted line, which may have
been caused by the Indians, or by some other means.
With the exception of this fresh surface the whole
specimen is enclosed in a gloss due to Paleolithic age.
The specimen in the lower left hand corner, (5230)
having a roughly rectangular outline and a slight
notching suggesting a tomahawk form, has a marked
conchoidal remnant of Early Paleolithic fracture, as
outlined by the dotted line. The existence of this
lateral notch coincident with the Paleolithic character
of this piece shows that the idea of tomahawk, as ex-
pressed in the shapes of some of the specimens, was
not so late in its origin, as Xeolithic time ; vet there is
an aspect of greater freshness in this specimen than
in the most of those evidently Paleolithic, and it may
be that there was a phase of stone art intermediate
between the Paleolithic (as here already defined) and
Xeolithic, allowing for a culture which could be as-
signed to the age between the Kansas and the W is-
consin. namely the Buchanan £tage. Perhaps the
scraper idea also dates from the age between the Kan-
sas and the Wisconsin. Still these tomahawk forms

V-

32 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

sometimes show a Glacial patina, and are earlier than
some ice epoch. The specimen in the -center, below,
(3114) shows three dates of chipping", numbered on
the specimen (1), (2) and (3) respectively according
to their ages. Xo. (1) occupies the most of the speci-
men. It is distinctly glossy and light-colored, and
embraces curving and indulating fracture planes. The
specimen was broken evidently from a large piece of
the same date, since its reverse side has an ictus-bulb
and conchoidal facet that shows the weathering of Xo.
(2). On the side photographed there is less area of
Xo. (2), but two patches can be seen. One is at the
upper end, invisible in the photograph. No. (3) is
confined to the larger end of the specimen and was a
secondary chipping calculated to produce the mono-
bevel of the X'eolithic scraper, but the effort failed, or
was abandoned, because of the poor quality of the
chert at that end, being much rotted and probably a
part of the matrix surface of the original nodule.
These areas are outlined by the dotted lines, and for
the present they may be distinguished conveniently
(though perhaps not correctly) as Early Paleolithic,
Paleolithic and X'eolithic. The specimen illustrated
in the lower right hand corner of plate \r 1 1 1 (5226)
shows two dates of chipping, one Early Paleolithic
and the other Paleolithic. Where the flake surfaces
of the later chipping intersect those of the earlier, the
thickness of the older weathering is shown by the
white edge of the altered surface where it abuts on the
later flaking. These two dates are outlined by dotted
lines. They both show the undulations of a forced
fracture.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE IV.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE VI.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE VII.

PALEOL1THS.

PAGES 27, 29. 62.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE VITI.

• . ■■-

fi'i, t ' «*.**'< -3

...

' Sit

■ -

m^3

.^..^^^-^.^tW^.T,iw1riwi,,ii«t^^tf^i»hi-nr-i»wiir —

, minftaiMttWirtfi"

TWO PALEOLITHIC DATES. PAGES 80, 62.

PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC CHIPPING. 33

Other specimens might be selected to show the
same contrasts in the weathering of the chipped sur-
faces of the same piece.

Plate IX is intended to show specimens that have
had Paleolithic and Neolithic chipping. described as fol-
lows, beginning at the upper left hand corner. No. 5115
shows an Early Paleolithic area embracing the central
part of the specimen. The Neolithic chipping is about
the margin, especially on the right side. There is
some doubt as to the rank of this secondary chipping
especially along the left side, where most of it is
glossy. The material is the same as that of No. 5221
of plate VI, and its age is equally uncertain. The
contrast however between the two chippings is quite
marked, regardless of their actual rank. The speci-
men in the center at the top (5013) shows the older
chipped area outlined in the central part. The edge
all around is perfectly chipped, and the other side of
the specimen is almost wholly fresh. The notches on
the sides of the specimen were made by the fresh
chipping. The specimen in the upper right hand
corner ($030), a small double scraper, nono-beveled at
each end, shows a marked contrast between the old
and the fresh chipping. The thickness of the Paleo-
lithic patina is quite marked wmere the chippings come
together, suggesting that the older surfaces may be
Early Paleolithic. The specimen in the lower left
hand corner (5227) shows two dates of chipping (even
three dates), but they are not so strongly contrasted
as in the last, and it is uncertain whether any of it can
be considered Neolithic. Tins uncertainty does not
exist in the case of the specimen represented in the

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

middle of the lower row, for the line separates areas
that show distinctly different periods of weathering,
that in the center being like that of the most of the
specimens here classed as Paleolithic. Outside of that
area the surface is unglossy, and is fractured by a
multitude of small chippings which appear to have
been made mainly by the use of the piece as a hammer.
The specimen numbered 5008 is a notched "point,"
made from a Paleolithic chip by Xeolithic work. The
Paleolithic area shows the undulations of forced flak-
ing", and is lighter colored than the Neolithic surfaces.

In plate X the figures show Early Paleolithic sur-
faces, with characteristic conchoidal chip-fractures.
The larger specimen (5226) was chipped again by
Paleolithic men, bringing out sharply the thickness of
the Early Paleolithic alteration crust and its color.
It is as thick as thick card paper, and its edge is al-
most white. The dark-colored surface at the top and
along the right side is considered Paleolithic, but is
not highly glossy. It is, however, in that respect like
many of the Kansas Paleoliths. The other specimen
(5227) while Early Paleolithic throughout the most
of the exposed surface, was chipped by Neolithic man
along the upper edge, as evinced by the fresh fracture
surfaces. The Early Paleolithic weather-crust, or
patina, has somewhat less thickness than seen in the
last, and consists, not of a gloss, but of an alteration
in color to a dirty white. The dark spots seen on the
Early Paleolithic surface are caused by limonite de-
posits.

Plate XI shows a collection of artifacts of recent
date, collected by Mr. Brower in the valley of Mill

1*1

f /

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>*

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• ^ --"^ - 1 r**-^ 'iirr' ri'r ."tiff -t r rw 1 i nifciitffriiiiifii

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<<

PALEOLITHS SHOWING EARLY PALEOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC AND EARLY NEOLITHIC CHIPPING. PAGES 33, 63.

1707585

ARTIFACTS OF NEOLITHIC DATE. 35

Creek, in the area of the people called Harahey by him.
The village sites that afford these more artistic and
freshly chipped implements also afford implements
and refuse of all of the foregoing types.

A large timber representative of ail the types were
collected by Mr. Brower, running into the thousands.
Usually the chipping on these artifacts is wholly re-
cent and fresh and can be attributed to the Indians
resident in the Kansas valley at the date of the visit
of Coronado in 1541. Still there can be seen some-
times slight differences in the weathering, and some-
times on the same specimen, indicating that the Neo-
lithic stone chipper chose his material from flakes or
chips which were older. The first of this plate (5021)
seen at the upper left-hand corner is unique in form
in this locality as well as in the kind of chert, called
Harahey knife by Mr. Brower, and the material must
have come originally from some other locality.* It is
fine-grained, siliceous and quite light-colored, with a
faint suggestion of flesh-red, but has veinings and ir-
regular deposits of light blue quartz. The next figure
(5022) which is canoe-sliapcd, represents what Mr.
Brower called a Ouiviran knife. Although it is fresh-
ly formed, the chipping did not entirely remove an
older surface, of which remnants appear on both sides.
This older surface, however, is not characteristically
Paleolithic. The next (5053) represents a handsome
little tomahawk, chipped fresh all over. The tanged
knife, or "point" (5091), shows also only fresh, or re-
cent, chipping. The same statement can be made of

•Subsequently it was found chat the Kansas chert is quite
variable, in local and exceptional conditions, though having a
type uniformity.

3G WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

the next figure (5052), a chipped leaf, or knife, of an
elongate and pointed, ovate outline. The barbed point
(5080) is also wholly recent, but the character of the
chert indicates that it may have been imported to the
Kansas valley. The specimen figured by 5071 is fresh-
ly chipped at the notches and along one edge between
the notch and the point, but elsewhere the surface is
old, though not Paleolithic, having a shiny luster.
The specimen was evidently a knife or a point prior
to the latest chipping, and had a straight, edged base.
It indicates a stage of chipping and of art between the
Paleolith and the Xeolith. The chert is of the native
variety. Specimen 5031 might be called an imperfect
scraper, as it shows one side nearly Hat and a tendency
toward mono-beveling at one end. Its edges, which
have been roughened apparently by use, show the
freshest chipping, prior to which it was a somewhat
weathered flake. The chipping seen on Xo. 5035 is
wholly fresh. This is a common form found in Mill
Creek valley. In the case of Xo. 5025 a portion of the
original surface of the piece from which the implement
was made, can be seen on one side. The shape of this
remnant, which runs to the extremity of the blunt
point, indicates that this was an implement prior to
the latest chipping. Xo. 5175, a large and otherwise
typical, scraper, is problematical. It has but little
fresh chipping, and such as there is, is confined to the
mono-beveled edge ; but the surface is everywhere
shiny with age. This age is not great enough to
warrant assigning the specimen to Paleolithic time,
and such a reference would be negatived also by the
fineness ami completeness of the implement. It seems

IK TERMS OF GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 37

to be neither recent nor Paleolithic, an intimation
which is derived also from Xos. 5022 and 50 71. The
two specimens numbered 5024 are, in the main, freshly
chipped, but the chipping about the notches and along
some of the edges is later than some of the surface
remote from the edges." The same is true of those
numbered 50G0. These have evidently been used as
knives rather than as arrow points, as the edges from
the notch to the point are more or less dulled by use.
Xo. 505? was freshly made from a flake, and a portion
of the original surface remains distinguishable from
the chipping about the edges, but the latest chipping
still is not so recent as that seen in the specimens
figured at the top of the plate. Xo. 5061 illustrates the
same truth, viz : that some of the recent artifacts show
two shippings, the latest being, in this case, in notches
above the ears, and in the notch in the base.

Probably the foregoing illustrations are sufficient to
establish the second of the propositions already stated,
viz : that the artifacts of the region show two or more
dates of chipping. If full acceptance be given to the
evidence so far as it indicates difference of age. it
seems to be necessary to allow four dates of chipping,
viz : Early Paleolithic, Paleolithic, Early X'eolithic and
Neolithic, which, for the present, may be assumed to
be expressed as follows in terms of Glacial geology :

1. Early Paleolithic. Pleistocene (or Aftonian).

2. Paleolithic. Pre-Kansan or Aftonian.

3. Early Neolithic, Buchanan.

4. X'eolithic. Peorian and Recent, (i. e. Post
Wisconsin).

*"These would generally be considered as broken points,
rechipped at the end to make scrapers" — F. W. Putnam.

I
I

38 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

There is no question of the existence of these stages
in the weathering of these Kansas artifacts. If the
chert were not derived from the same place, and if it
were not of essentially uniform characters as to color
and hardness, and if the specimens compared were ob-
tained from distant or different localities, the distinc-
tions mentioned would be less likely to be valid. The
area is restricted to a portion of the Kansas valley.
The foregoing collocation of these differences with
the stages of the Pleistocene and of Glacial time, based
on the determinations of the Iowa geological survey,
is entirely provisional.

3. LOCATION OF THESE ARTIFACTS.

These observations are confined to a small tract in
the north-east central Kansas lying south from the
southern limit of the drift at that place. There is a
copious morainic accumulation of northern drift in
northeastern Kansas extending nearly to the Kansas
valley at this place, and crossing it further east, ex-
tending into Missouri south of Kansas City. This
carries many large boulders of granite and red quart-
zyte derived from Minnesota. Such a morainic accu-
mulation, at the time the ice was present would have
dammed the Kansas river and ponded it back so as
to flood a portion of the country, and hence would
have formed a layer of loess-like clay which would
have buried numerous artifacts of earlier origin, and
it is not impossible that the Kansas valley at this
place was choked with glacial gravel and sand, which
also would serve to cover and conceal Early Paleo-
lithic and Paleolithic work. The fact that the ice

LOCATION OF THESE ARTIFACTS. 39

limit was near adjacent toward the north and north-
east from this small area in Kansas is well known
and is indicated on Wright's map of the Glacial geol-
ogy of the United States and Southern Canada (Ice
Age in North America, 5th Edition). Whether the la-
custrine or alluvial deposits cotemporary with this ex-
tension of the ice covered the limestone plateau con-
taining the chert beds is not known, but it is evident
that if this upland was so covered the limestone, with
its cherty beds, has since been uncovered. The writer
at this date has not seen the locality, and has to de-
pend on the descriptions of Mr. Brower and Judge
Keagy. (The accompanying map of northeastern
Kansas was made since this was written and shows
that the limestone area was exempted).

4. RELATION TO THE GLACIAL DRIFT.

That the chert-bearing limestone of the upland,
specially designated by Mr. Brower as the habitat of
the Ouivirans, and specially marked by the preval-
ence of the Paleolithic implements and by the absence
of Neolithic handiwork, was not disturbed by the ice
itself, is evident * from the absence of Glacial
drift (boulders and till) from the region as well as by
the concentration of these artifacts. Had the ice
moved over these loose artifacts they would have been
scattered and distributed confusedly amongst Glacial
deposits of till or of gravel and sand.

5. AQUEOUS DEPOSITS OF THE LOWER KANSAS

VALLEY.

That the Kansas valley in general at this place was
flooded, is evident from the occurrence of aqueous de-

40 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

posits at considerable elevations above the present
high-water mark. It is somewhat difficult to assign
these aqueous deposits unequivocally to the respective
Glacial epochs. The lower lying gravel and sand may
be of the date of the Kansas epoch, and certain loess-
like or clave}' beds, overlying such gravel and sand,
may date from the Jowan. Early Paleolithic and
Paleolithic artifacts only would be expected in the
former, while in the latter might also be found Early
Neolithic. The habitat of the Harahey was therefore,
so far as it was within the valley, upon the aqueous
deposits of one or more ice-epochs, and so far as it ex-
tended beyond the valley toward the east it was upon
Glacial drift. If the same people or any people co-
temporary with them, occupied any part of Kansas
further west or southwest, they were beyond the ice
limit, and they may have come into contact with pre-
Glacial artifacts.

6. MINGLING OF PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC

ARTIFACTS.

The sixth proposition affirms that along the valleys,
when not buried, the oldest artifacts are mixed on the
surface with the newest. This is illustrated by the
findings of Mr. B rower and of Judge Keagy. The col-
lections of the Minnesota Historical Society, derived
from the Mill Creek valley, embrace the oldest and the
newest of human stone artifacts. It shows that the
Harahey carried the rude artifacts of the upland to
their village sites and there rechipped them into finer
forms, resulting in the frequent preservation of some
of the Paleolithic surfaces on the finished Neolithic

PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC MINGLED 41

implements. If the statement of Mr. Brower be ac-
cepted unqualifiedly, to the effect that the finished
Neolithic implements are never4 found in the region of
the rude implements, (i. e. in the region of the Quivi-
rans), it would follow that in all cases the modern
stone workers carried the rude artifacts to the valley
before re-working them. But a priori it would be rea-
sonable to suppose that occasionally some of the Neo-
lithic men would have done some of their re-chipping
on the spot where the material was found, and perhaps
had there also some of their village sites, or at least
some temporary camps. It i"S possible that further
search in the area of the Ouivirans, as defined by Mr.
Brower, will reveal more or less of the working which
Mr. Brower supposed was characteristic of the Hara-
heyans.* Therefore it is probable that there cannot
be made any reliable geographic definition of th*. pres-
ent distribution of these kinds of artifacts. The safest
distinctions are those based on type of culture and
extent of weathering.

7. The seventh proposition has been anticipated in
the discussion of the second.

II. CULTURAL STAGES OF STONE CHIP-
PING CORRELATED WITH GLACIAL

STAGES.

It has already been remarked that the man of Paleo-
lithic time (and hence of Early Paleolithic), was sat-
isfied with the acquirement of an edge. With that he

*It may also be remarked that Mr. Brewer's illustrations
of ''Quiviran'' implements include several types of Neolithic
implements, especially some found by him in the Elliott
(Quiviran) village site.

42 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

could do the roughest and simplest cutting by using
the implement in his hand, without a withed handle.
Such edges he often found ready to his hand, made by
nature, and very many show by their battered angles
that they have been used as knives or primitive axes,
without any artificial chipping, illustrating the "Pro-
tolithic" stone age of McGee, (see Am. Anth. IX, p.
318, 189G). Amongst the hundreds of Paleoliths gath-
ered in Kansas, there is no intimation of an arrow-
point, nor of a scraper, nor of a finished knife or blade,
nor of a pestle and mortar, nor of a grooved hammer,
nor a drill. The artifacts, so far as appears at present,
warrant the inference only of the rudest kind of human
life, in which the exigencies of scanty food and little
or no clothing were connected with those of the most
comfortless kind of existence. We have no right
therefore to assume the presence of the buffalo — nay,
we are debarred from such a presumption, for in the
presence of such an animal, so inoffensive, so easily
killed and so productive of both food and raiment,
Paleolithic man would have given to his stone arti-
facts some of the features that would have aided him
in its capture, if not in the fabrication of useful articles
from the hides and bones. His physical condition is
well described by Mr. Brower in the words which he
applied to the Ouivirans :

"As Nature's children turned loose upon the plains
of Kansas, with nothing whatever except their two
hands and a savage intellect, urged on by necessities
engendered by their hardships and by exposure ; with
one stone they chipped another to a fractured edge,
sallied forth, lived and prospered." Quivim, p. 22.

CULTURAL STAGES.

There is, however, a class of implements which by
their weathering" approach toward the Paleolith, which
are excluded by the terms of the last paragraph. It is
as yet questionable where they belong. They em-
brace some long, well-made knives, some scrapers and
the articles that have been styled tomahawks. They
show too much delicate manipulation to warrant put-
ting them with true Paleoliths, as understood by the
writer. One of the scrapers has been included in
plate XI, (51 To) among the Neolithic artifacts, but
with some doubt and qualification. There are quite
a number of these. One of the knives and one of the
tomahawks (5015) are partially coated with a calcare-
ous scale, which is taken as indication that they have
been buried in some drift deposit for a long time. At
present the only way apparent by which to adjust the
culture with Glacial history is to refer these shiny
implements to an Early Neolithic period, the Bu-
chanan (?), and thereby to presume they have been
embraced in a calcareous loess belonging perhaps to
the Iowan ice epoch. According to this there was a
large advance in skill between the Paleolithic and the
Early Neolithic. The idea of a tomahawk, the idea of
a scraper and that of a long chert knife or blade, use-
ful in many ways, were evolved, or at least existed,
in Early Neolithic time, and that would, perhaps, war-
rant the presumption that the buffalo flourished on the
plains in the Buchanan (?) inter-Glacial epoch.

It may be possible, in the future, to determine ap-
proximately when the stone arrow point was intro-
duced, invloving a knowledge of the bow. At present
there is not enough known of the consecutive steps of

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

progressive culture in Peorian and Recent time to
warrant an attempt to fix its introduction further
than to say that it was a Neolithic, or Early Neolithic,
step, probably the latter. Subsequent to that came
the fabrication of numerous polished stone articles
characteristic of the early days of the present Indian.

Feb. 13, 1912.

Supplemental Xote.

The argument of the foregoing chapter is based on
the fact, (which is well known by geologists) that
siliceous rocks, such as quartzyte, jaspilyte, Mint and
chert, are practically indestructible under atmospheric
agents. The boulders of red quartzyte found near
Topeka, in the Kansan moraine, are entirely intact,
whereas those of granite can be crushed in the hand.
Therefore chipped chert whenever it has a weather-
scale of decay must be older than the Kansan moraine.

Aug. 15, 1912.

III. WHAT WERE THE TRIBES MET IN THE
KANSAN VALLEY BY CORONADO IN 1541?

It is manifest, from the chronicles of the Coronado

♦

expedition, that there were two tribes or sub-tribes
with whom Coronado had intercourse. It is also plain
that their places of habitation were not far separate.
They spoke substantially the same language. The
guide of Coronado (Ysopete) acted as spokesman
when Coronado first encountered the people of Ouiv-
ira, and as interpreter when the two people came to-
gether to a conference with Coronado. It is also
stated that the guides were both from Harahey. The

v..

TRIBES MET BY COROXADO. 45

statement that these tribes were at war "with one an-
other," is based plainly on a misunderstanding- of the
original, as it is inconsistent with all other facts which
appertain to the relations of these two tribes. The
expression can be understood by supposing that the
words "these tribes" included all the tribes (the
Ouerechos and the Teyas) with whom Coronado had
met since he left Mexico. The circumstances of the
death of missionary Padilla are given differently by
different chroniclers. One account states that he was
slain by the Haraheyans because of jealousy, when he
attempted to carry the blessings thai he had bestowed
on them to their enemies, and the other that while en
route to another tribe his party was attacked by hos-
tile warriors and all were put to flight, Padilla submit-
ting to death that the rest might escape."*' The latter
is far more reasonable and probable, and points to a
state of war existing between the Haraheyans and
some other tribe living further east. This hostile
tribe was probably one of the stock of the Dakota, the-
Osage or the Kansas, with greater probability of the
Kansas, since at a later date, after the AYichita had
left the valley, the Kansas arc known to have occupied
the Kansas valley, with their central village on the Big
Blue river, near its junction with the Kansas river.

In reviewing historic authorities and old maps
Mr. Brower observes that Quivira is shown, not as a
village, but as a province containing several villages.
"The Spaniards under Coronado spent twenty-five
days exploring the province of Quivira in all direc-

*Jarami!lo aisn says that Padilla was slain by members of
his own party, i. e. by some Indians that were with him as
"lay servants".

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

tions before they retired in the direction from whence
they came." In that explored area must have been
included the habitat of the Haraheyans, and there is no
evidence whatever of a state of war. All the facts
indicate peaceful relations, and require that the Ouiv-
ira and the Haraheyans were neighboring* sub-tribes
of the same stock. It has been shown, furthermore,
by Mr. F. W. Hodge that the Quivira were Wichita-
Caddo (Harahey, p. 68). Coronado sent a summons
"to the governor of Harahey and Quivira", which
shows that he understood that the people were closely
allied and that the Haraheyans must have been also
of the Caddoan stock. Mr. Hodge also has shown
that the Harahey people were Pawnee, and adopts the
suggestion of George Bird Grinnell that they were of
that particular tribe of the Pawnee that were known
then as Ariki, and later as Arikara, the same that for
many years were closely associated with the Mandan
on the upper Missouri in North Dakota, and this de-
termination can hardly be questioned. They differed
from the Wichita in dialect, and in the manner of
dressing their hair, comparable to the description given
by the chroniclers of the Coronado journey. The
name "Harahey" could, perhaps, by such confusion and
corruption as are not uncommon amongst modern
writers of Indian names, be derived from the old name
of the Arikara (Ariki) with less violence to the abo-
riginal vocalization than from any name borne by any
neighboring Dakota tribe. It is further historically
probable that the Arikara were still with their linguis-
tic kin (Skidi) in 1541 ; and it is more likely that the
Wichita Caddo, in answer to the question what teas

(

V-

BOTII TKIBES CADDO AN. 47

next cast from them, would mention their kin than an
enemy. Again there is some significance in the fact
that sometimes the two tribes are referred to as if
they were one people, one part living but little re-
moved from the other, and at other times referred to
as two peoples. Such double significance could hardly
have taken place if one were Caddoan and the other
Dakotan.

The two cotemporary people therefore were of the
same stock (Caddo), and must have been of identical
culture, and neither of them could have been the fab-
ricators of the implements which denote the rude and
savage life mistakenly ascribed by Air. Brower to the
Quivira. They were both undistinguishable, in every
respect, from the historic aborigines of the region.
But the fabricators of the rude implements (though
now more or less mingled with implements of higher
culture) were much ruder and more savage, destitute
of most of the simple utensils which characterized
the former, without pottery, without earth houses,
without stone vessels of any kind, with slight use of
fire, a wild and barbarous race, dressed in skins and
mrs or in such garments as they constructed from a
scant supply of flax and from skins which they sewed
with sinew and needles of bone, using the extensive
cnert deposits of the region for rude axes and perhaps
tomahawks, and grinding their food in flat metates
made of boulders. "Nature's children turned loose
upon the plains of Kansas, with nothing whatsoever
except their two hands and a savage intellect, urged
on by necessities engendered by their hardships and
toy exposure, with one stone they chipped another to

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

a fractured edge, sallied forth, lived and prospered."
Q it iv ira, p. 22. These contrasts of culture were fur-
ther evidenced by the coarseness of the chipping which
marked the implements of the ruder people, compared
with that of the stone artifacts of the Caddo of history.
It seems impossible that two aboriginal peoples thus
different could live cotemporaneously in adjacent
regions, in peace, for a period of time sufficient to sat-
isfy the conditions of history. One would have ex-
terminated or expelled the other as rapidly as aborig-
inal warfare could be made to do it. If these two
peoples had been located in distant and different river
basins, even then their differences would have led to
the extirpation of one or the other, and the extension
of the culture of the victor over the areas of both.

All these obstacles are obviated and a consistent suc-
cesion of ethnologic stages of culture becomes mani-
fest by the relegation of the ruder people to a prehis-
toric acre.

In the foregoing chapter evidence is given to show
that the ruder people preceded the more cultured by a
long interval of time, and that they were probably of
the age which in Europe has been called Paleolithic, or
Early Neolithic, or more likely both.

IV. EARLY MAX AND HIS COTEMPORARY
FAUNA IN KANSAS.

The proofs of the existence of man in Kansas before
and during the Glacial epoch, or epochs, as detailed in
this article, are only renewed confirmations of the in-
ferences that have been drawn from the discoverv of

EARLY MAN AND HIS COTEMPORARY FAUNA. 49

his skeletal remains and his stone artifacts in the loess
of the Mississippi valley, which have been announced
from time to time. These have been summarized by
the writer in "Aborigines of Minnesota", 1911, pp.
2-23. If man's remains exist in the loess of the great
valley, they can of course be there only adventitiously,
and it would be reasonable to expect that on the land,
where he must have spent his life and developed his
activities, there would have been distributed, normally,
more evident and more numerous traces of his habita-
tion.* North from the limit of glaciation these traces
were necessarily enveloped by- the movements of the
ice, and distributed, and often destroyed, by the re-
sultant floods of water. He did not build, in the lati-
tude of Kansas, any structures of stone that could
withstand the destructive elements of the air. His
habitations were rude and simple and have disap-
peared entirely. His domestic articles, wnen not of
chert, have decayed ; but he everywhere used the chert
beds of the various geologic formations for the fabri-
cation of implements needed for his daily existence,
and these are practically indestructible, and they ought
to be identifiable. So' far as the writer is informed,
however, this is the first attempt ever made in America
to remove, because of differences of patination, a group
of the stone artifacts of the country from the author-
ship of the historic Indian, or at least from the Indian

*The author considers the aqueous origin of the Mississippi
loess, and hence that of the Missouri, as a whole, as demon-
strated by its stratiform structure and its geographic dis-
tribution. It was the product of ages of rock-decay.
Pleistocene and pre-Pleistocene, a gecst, which covered, and
still covers, the most of the upland surface in Kansas and
other states, swept into the valleys by the agencies mainly
of the lovvan ice epoch.

50 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

of post-Glacial time, to pre-Glacial time, and to show
the characters by which they can be distinguished.*
Individual instances are not wanting in which, by
reason of geological environments, isolated specimens
have been shown to have been formed prior to the
Wisconsin Glacial epoch, and one or two cases have
been described in which the weathered condition of the
artifacts indicated pre-Glacial date. The most im-
portant of these latter are (a) that of Claypole in 1896,
"Human relics in the drift of Ohio", Am. Geol., XVIII,
302, and (b) that of the writer in 1909, "Possible pre-
Glacial human remains about Washington, D. C",
Records of the Past, VII, 249.

In pursuance of a discussion of the weathering of ab-
original stone artifacts, it will be well to present a short
review of the Glacial period, in order that the reader
may apprehend the succession of the main climatic
changes and the consequent physical changes in the
surface of the country.

Previous to the advent of the first ice-sheet in Kan-
sas, and throughout the most of the area of the United
States, there was a long period of comparative quiet,
during which it was possible for the existence and the
multiplication of a characteristic fauna. This fauna
embraced numerous large mammals which are now ex-
tinct.

According to Professor J. A. Udden, in the Ameri-
can Geologist, Vol. VII, p. 340, "The Megalony.r beds in

*The well-known work of the pioneer. Abbott, in the Dela-
ware valley, and of his successor, Volk, under the auspices
of the Peabody Museum of Cambridge, though mainly based
on a study of the river gravels and sands, differentiated two
types of artifacts and two peoples, prior to the Delaware
Indians.

REVIEW OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 51

Kansas," pebbles of crystalline rock and quartz are
found in a gravel deposit in McPherson county, Kan-
sas. There are also certain detached masses of Cre-
taceous in the overyling strata which he considers to
have been brought to their present position by floating
ice. These deposits lie in a great north-south trough
which cuts across the main east-west watershed of the
state, uniting the valley, of the Kansas with that of the
Arkansas, which apparently drained an old lake several
miles in extent extending over the valley of the Smoky
Hill river, which had an overflow discharge southward
into the valley of the Little Arkansas. This lake, if
not a late Tertiary lake, may be ascribed to an ice
sheet which dammed the Kansas and Smoky Hill val-
leys and diverted the drainage of Northwestern Kan-
sas southward into the Arkansas valley. This "pre-
Kansan" Glacial lake, which has never been named,
and the sediments which it formed in this trough, are,
apparently, indications of a drift epoch older than that
whose terminal moraine is outlined on the accompany-
ing plate-map. In the gravel at the bottom of this old
trough Prof. Udden found fossil bones of Megalonyx
and Equus.* A similar assemblage of fossils has been
described by Calvin in Iowa, and referred by him to
the Aftonian inter-glacial age. (Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.
XX, 1909; Vol. XXII, 1911 and Iowa Geol. Sur.
Vol. XX, 1910). This Atfonian inter-glacial epoch
is that which immediately preceded the Kansan
Glacial epoch, and followed the pre-Kansan. If

*These fossils having later been studied by Beede (Kan.
Geol. Sur. vol. 2, p. 290) are found to comprise Megalonyx
Leidyi, Equus major, Spherium striatum and sulcatum.
Pisidium abditum, Anomodontia, Valvata and Gamarus.

. v.

52 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

these assignments of this fauna are correct as
above given they seem not to be identical as to
date. If man was a denizen of America at that
date he was compelled to compete for existence with
a horde of carnivores, and to share with them in
the destruction of many herbivires. With the advent
of the Glacial epoch (pre-Kansan) the physical con-
ditions became more unfavorable, and so extreme that
many species both of fauna and flora were forced to
move southward, or were exterminated. Southward
from the ice-margin, which probably extended into
northeastern Kansas about as far as the mouth of the
Salina river, the country was too cold for human com-
fort, even as far south as near the gulf of Mexico. It
is not probable that man was expelled from the valley
of the Mississippi southward from Kansas, nor from
the shores of the gulf of Mexico. The river main-
tained an open channel in the midst of the ice-covered
land for many hundreds of miles northward from the
ice limit, and in many sheltered coves and small trib-
utaries where these united with the Mississippi, the
native fauna, especially those species that characterize
now the latitude of Alaska and northern Canada, gath-
ered in large numbers. And if man was then an in-
habitant he was found in their company, and shared
with them the fresh and cool air, the abundant fish
and water fowl, and suffered also with them the dep-
redations of the fiercer beasts. In summer he wan-
dered over the country to the east and west of the
Mississippi, and probably visited many wonted spots,
including such as the chert deposits of Kansas, Mis-

COMPANIONS OF EARLY MAN. 53

souri, Illinois and Ohio, where he extracted material
for the rough implements that he needed. The most
of Kansas, although probably forested, was suitable
for his roaming and hunting. Probably he had not
yet the modern buffalo as a mentor for his movements,
but there was a profusion of other animals which were
useful for food, which were easily caught. He was not
at all delicate in his taste, and devoured not only the
most toothsome, but was well satisfied with anything
that he could capture, not excepting insects, lizards
and serpents. His most conspicuous companions were
the mammoth, mastodon, giant beaver, megalonyx,
moose, musk ox, an extinct bison, an extinct peccary,
and, further south, llama, camel and horse. As a
geological group these have been classed under the
name of "Megalonyx beds", when found in Kansas and
described by Udden, and by Cope as "Equus beds",
in which he reported human remains.

The ice epoch waned, the climate became more gen-
ial, and all the fauna moved gradually northward. The
"Aftonian inter-glacial'' epoch supervened. This un-
covered for habitation a large extent of country lying
to the north of the pre-Kansan moraine. Where this
moraine runs has not been worked out. It is probable
that it will be traced only in a general way. Its con-
tents may have largely decayed and gone into the com-
position of clays and soils, and its topography may
have been smoothed down by age; or it may have
lain so far north that it was buried by the later Kansas
ice sheet. On the other hand, there may never have
been a distinct pre-Kansan moraine, as that term is
ordinarily understood, but the ice may have feathered

54 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

out imperceptibly beneath the drift which it bore along
and only the slow-moving loess-like mud which it
must have produced in abundance over so broad and so
level and expanse as the state of Kansas, lapped effect-
ually over the ice and the adjoining land, obliterating
all indication of the actual ice-margin, but distributing
widely a pre-Kansan loess, partly Glacial and partly
aqueous, derived from the easily disintegrated Cre-
taceous strata of the region. If man existed in Amer-
ica during this (Aftonian) inter-Glacial epoch his re-
mains may be found in the drift of the Kansan ice
epoch, or in later drift, and, outside of the ice limit of
the Kansan, they might occur on the surface, or near
the surface, of the ground, where they had lain from
Aftonian time to the present. In this paper such spec-
imens are called Paleolithic, while a few which show
the greatest alteration are called Early Paleolithic.

The Kansan ice epoch was like the pre-Kansan, but
the ice margin left a distinct morainic accumulation.
Its ice-sheet encroached upon northeastern Kansas
and its margin, as indicated by its terminal moraine, is
shown on the accompanying map. Its moraine con-
tains much red quartzyte, and granite that can be
referred to southwestern Minnesota. This moraine
is that which is usually considered as the border of the
continental ice-sheet. It is evident that the Kansan
epoch was one that was marked by rapid and vigorous
transportation of drift, in that respect differing from
the pre-Kansan. The effect upon man and his as-
sociated fauna was quite similar to that of the pre-
ivansan, but less prolonged and more intense. It need
not be supposed that the drift which forms the moraine

INTER-GLACIAL MAN IN KANSAS.

of the Kansan ice-sheet was entirely carried from its
sources by the Kansan ice., but a large part of it was
probably brought part way by the pre-Kansan ice.

The people that came to Kansas on the withdrawal
of the Kansan ice-sheet were probably similar in all
essential characters, with those that left it as the ice-
sheet came upon them. They had the same necessities
and supplied them in about the same way, but perhaps
with some increase of skill, the period of time separat-
ing" them being unquestionably several thousand years.
The artifacts which at first they chipped from the
chert were rude and large, seldom showing any more
design than to make an edge with which to cut their
meat or to break their small sticks. These were the
people of the Buchanan inter-Glacial epoch, so named
by the geological survey of Iowa. This people re-
mained in Kansas during not only the Buchanan inter-
Glacial epoch, but also, as now supposed, through the
later epochs, both Glacial and inter-Glacial, not having
been driven away by a return of excessive cold. This
long residence may have been interrupted, and prob-
ably was, by hostile tribes, and actually there may have
been several tribes that succeeded each other in north-
eastern Kansas from this cause. While the Illinoian
Glacial epoch, affecting the country further north and
east, came and went, and was followed by a minor
inter-Glacial epoch (Sangamon), the state of Kansas
was not so affected that any radical change took place
in the nature of the mammalian fauna. These cli-
matic fluctuations may have provoked certain warlike
inroads and forced migrations, but it is probable that
the new comers were about on a par with their pre-

56 WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

decessors so far as regards their methods of life and
their status in aboriginal culture. The Iowan Glacial
epoch was more momentous and projected a flood of
muddy water down the Mississippi and (especially)
the Missouri valleys, so voluminous that where it
reached the latitude of Kansas the banks were full,
and sometimes more than full, so that much of the
adjacent land was covered. These floods were bur-
dened with a fine silt which was deposited on the land
along these rivers and in their valleys, especially along
the Missouri valley, and in the Mississippi below the
mouth of the Missouri. It everywhere shows traces
of horizontal water stratification, and has received the
geological designation loess. Drainage from the land
adjacent carried many land shells into the muddy
slime and these are seen interstratified in irregular ac-
cumulations in the loess, extending horizontally and
indicating the points where tributaries joined the main
river. This reduction in the habitable area of the
country was unfortunate for the larger animals, and
for man. It can cause no surprise that, along with
the bones of the mammoth and his associates of the
time, have been found, in this loessian mantle of the
main valleys, the remains of man, not only in the form
of stone artifacts but of his bony skeleton.

The people that lived in Kansas through this Iowan
flood were verv likelv the descendants of those who
came there on the withdrawal of the Kansan ice-sheet,
and they seem to have improved in their skill of stone
chipping. In this paper this improved state of culture
is designated Early Neolithic. Not only are the arti-
facts more skillfully chipped and the finished imple-

PEOPLE OF THE IOWAN FLOOD. 57

ment a product of a higher and more artistic concep-
tion, but they show a commensurate state of less
weathering-, indicating, in their culture, an approach
toward Neolithic art, as well as Neolithic, i. e., post-
Wisconsin, time. Indeed it has been found conveni-
ent, in this preliminary investigation, to class as Neo-
lithic only those chipped implements which show an
absolute freshness of fractured surface. There have
been found, as yet, no reliable other characters by
which to separate the Neolithic from the Early Neo-
lithic. Theoretically the writer would prefer to make
all post-Wisconsin artifacts- Neolithic. But it was
found impossible on that basis to separate some of the
Early Neolithic from the Neolithic. In other words,
so far as can be determined, there is a sensible grada-
tion from Early Neolithic to Neolithic, both in type
of culture and in the weathering shown by the speci-
mens. It was during Early Neolithic time that the
arrow-point was introduced, and the mono-clinal
scraper and the thin slender knife and the drill. Hence
it is that we infer that the American buffalo then be-
came important as a source of food and of shelter from
cold and storms. Then followed the Wisconsin Gla-
cial epoch which was more like the Kansan, a period
of refrigeration for the northern United States and
Canada, of tumultous transportation of drift and of
migration from north to south. There seem to have
been striking resemblances between the pre-Kansan
and the Iowan. and also between the Kansan and the
Wisconsin. The two former were epochs of (appar-
ently) long duration and slow, easy transportation, and
the latter of less duration but rapid and powerful

5S WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

transporting power.* The waters that resulted from
the Wisconsin ice-sheet re-excavated the loess mantle
along the great valleys and brought the natural surface
more nearly to the physical conditions of the present.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate I.

• Paleoliths from Europe, actual size. Page 13.

« ' Paleolith from the Loire Bassin, Feuardent,
France, No. 35122, of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, and No. 2229 of the Brower Register of
the Minnesota Historical Society; showing the coarse
chipping and the most glossy surface.

b Paleolith from the drift gravel at Thetford, Eng-
land, No. 110S3 of the Smithsonian register and No.
2228 of the Brower register of the Minnesota Histori-
cal Society; showing the coarse chipping and the old-
est natural surface, which came in contact with the
matrix chalk when the nodule was in the rock.

Plate II.

PaleoUths from Europe, actual size, page 17.

Showing the same European specimens as in Plate
I, but the reverse sides, a shows the manner of dis-
tribution of specks of limonite or limonitic manganese
oxide, indicating that this surface of the specimen was

*The writer is aware that the great granite boulders which
lie in the area of the Iowan loess in southern Minnesota
and northern Iowa have been supposed to date from Iowan
Glacial time, and if that is true they form a remarkable
exception; but it seems quite easy theoretically to refer them
to the time of the energetic Kansas transportation and to
explain the bold prominence with which they stand above
the surface by superficial removal of the Iowan loess by
which they may have been surrounded, or perhaps covered.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 59

turned downward. This surface is less glossy than
that represented in Plate I, and also shows, at the
bottom, a portion of the old matrix contact on the
chalk, b, of the Thetford specimen, in point of discol-
oration and glossiness, does not differ perceptibly from
b of Plate I.

Plate III.

Paleolith from Kansas, actual size, Page 26.

No. 5212 of the Brower register of the Minnesota
Historical Society. Found at the Dreball site, 4 miles
west from Alma, in the MiH Creek valley, Kansas.
The interior of the specimen is blue-gray. The weath-
er patina is a thin scale of alteration having a gray col-
or without a blue tint, but in some parts being of a
dirty buff, still without any marked tinge of yellow.
The chipping is very coarse. Along the edge at the
lower right hand is a dulled portion showing use by
the Paleolithic people. The opposite side, where not
chipped, consists of the matrix-contact on the lime-
stone and is of a dirty buff color. Where it is chipped
it is less weathered than the side photographed.

Plate IV.

Paleolith from Kansas, actual size, Page 26.

No. 5213 of the Brower register of the Minnesota
Historical Society. Found at the same place as the
specimen illustrated by plate III. These were both
associated with a large number of Paleoliths. As to
color and patina this is quite similar to the last, and
likewise shows battering by use on the edges. The
darker portion at the lower right hand is caused by a

V.
»

60 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

variation in the chert to a very siliceous, coarse, gray
rock, resembling limestone, which however has lost
all calcareous ingredient which it may originally have
contained. It is (here) separated from the chert by a
thin layer of dirty white chert.

Plate V.

Kansas Palcoliths, actual size. Page 29.
Nos. 5215 and 5225, of the Brower register of the
Minnesota Historical Society. Found, along with an
indefinite number of others of a similar character, at
the Dreball site, at four miles west from Alma, in the
Mill Creek valley, Kansas. These specimens, having
squarish outline, are battered by use along the longer
edges. The sides photographed show the strongest
patinate characters. The chipping is very coarse.
The surface is glossy, and considerably lighter colored
than the color of the interior.

Plate VI.

Kansas Early Palcoliths, Palcoliths and Paleoliths rc-
chippcd, actual size. Page 28.

No. 5216 to 5221: of the Brower register of the Min-
nesota Historical Society. Found at the Dreball site,
4 miles from Alma and elsewhere in Mill Creek valley.

Xo. 521(3. The side photographed shows only Early
Paleolithic weathering, except that at the edge, along
the lower right hand, a part of the matrix contact sur-
face is preserved. The weather scale is yellowish
brown. On the reverse side a portion of the surface
is Paleolithic and has a dull glossy weather patina,
which contrasts with the Early Paleolithic brovvn
weather scale.

FOUND AT THE DREBALL SITE. 61

Xo. 521T. On the plate that portion which is en-
closed by the dotted line is the freshest of the con-
choidal surfaces, but has a dull gloss and may be Pale-
olithic, especially so since much of the rest of the sur-
face has a dark brown patina indicating Early Paleo-
lithic time. On the reverse side is a larger area of the
same.

Xo. 521S. In this specimen the dotted line sur-
rounds the oldest surface, which is brown, or yellowish
brown, and belongs to the age which is considered
Early Paleolithic. The edge of the patina is thin, but
still has a visible thickness. The rest of this specimen
is Paleolithic, with conchoidal surfaces and dull glossy
patina, the color being dirty buff, mottled with gray.

Xo. 5219, whose form suggests a tomahawk, has a
weathered glossy patina, equivalent to that charac-
teristic of the Paleoliths. The dotted lines enclose sur-
faces which are conchoidal and older than the rest, but
not covered with a thick Early Paleolithic brown pat-
ina, which do not fall plainly into any category adopt-
ed in this paper. Other tomahawks in the collection
are certainly Early Xeolithic.

Xo. 5220 is Paleolithic throughout, except along
the right edge which has a harsh and siliceous coating
which was formed round the nodule from which the
implement was chipped out. This is one of many in
the collection.

Xo. 5221 is of doubtful age. It is glossy all over,
and its color is brown, even inside. It is a piece of a
large flake.

Xos. 5222, 5223 and 5224 were made of altered chert.
They have plainly, in part, a Paleolithic patina, and on

62 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

the back side of No. 5223 is a remnant of an Early
Paleolithic surface. Their edges have been broken by
use. They may be Early Neolithic.

Plate VII.

Palcoliths from Kansas, actual size. Page 29.

Xos. 5198 (2 specimens) and 5220 (2 specimens).
Found in the Deep Creek valley, northwest from Alma
on the O'Neal site, along with numerous others.

No. 5198. The weathered surface is gray and light
gray, and covers an interior which is blue-gray and
gray. The edges have been battered by use.

No. 5220, leaves or turtles like the last, one being
broken across and showing only about one-half.
These have a Paleolithic, whitish patina and a gloss.

Plate VIII.

Palcoliths from Kansas, actual size, showing tico Paleo-
lithic dates. Page 30.

These specimens are from the Mill Creek valley, and
No. 5226 are from one and three-quarters mile north-
west from Alta Vista.

No. 5226 (three specimens) are described in the text,
p. 30. The weathered surfaces of different dates are
outlined on the plate. The oldest surfaces shown on
the two large figures at the top of the plate have a
weather scale of different colors. That in the left hand
upper corner shows a brown scale, not glossy, marked
"pre-paleolithic". That in the right-hand upper cor-
ner has a dirty cream-colored scale. But that in the
lower right hand corner has a more nearly white Pale-
olithic weather scale.

THREE DATES OF CHIPPING. 63

Specimen No. 5114 is described fully in the text.
It shows plainly three weather stages, viz: Early
Paleolithic (1), Paleolithic (2), and Neolithic (3).
The Paleolithic weather scale is white or dirty white,
as in No. 5226 next adjoining to the right.

Plate IX.

Paleoliths from Kansas, actual size. Page 33. Show-
ing Early Paleolithic, Neolithic and Early
Neolithic Chipping.

These are all from the Mill Creek valley, and No.
5227 from one and three-quarters miles northwest
from Alta Vista.

No. 5115. In addition to the description given in the
text (p. 33) it may be stated further that the Early
Paleolithic surface (1) is divisible into two parts, a and
b, a having a white, thin, unglossy weather-crust seen
on both sides of the specimen, lying upon a thick
brown crust, b ; that No. 2 intersects both a and b and
that it shows entirely a brown and glossy patina
whether it covers b or the original olive-gray chert.
The chipping (3) about the edge at the right is much
later, but doubtfully Neolithic, although it has a gloss
which elsewhere is unquestionably Early Neolithic.
The chert of this specimen is dense in texture and of
olive gray color.

No. 5013. Shows Paleolithic and Neolithic chip-
ping, but the Paleolithic surface is not glossy. It is
outlined in the central part of the figure, and it may be
later than pre-Kansan. It contrasts strongly with the
Neolithic chipping about the edges of the specimen.

64 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

No. 5030. A bi-terminal scraper, showing Paleo-
lithic and Neolithic (or Early Neolithic) chipping.

No. 5227. Shows two dates of chipping. The larg-
er specimen bearing this number has a plain Paleo-
lithic area in the center, as outlined, and an equally
plain fresher fracture all about the edge, apparently of
Neolithic date, produced by use of the piece as a ham-
mer,— perhaps for chipping other pieces.

No. 5008 shows a rough Paleolithic crust of decay
surrounded by Neolithic chipping, producing a notched
"point".

Plate X.

Kansas Paleoliths, actual size. Showing Early Paleo-
lithic, Paleolithic and Xeolithic Dates. Page 34.
From the Mill Creek valley.

No. 5.226. A characteristic squarish specimen, the
most of the surface having a nearly white Early Paleo-
lithic weather scale, the chipping having been done by
Paleolithic man.

No. 522T. A similar specimen, roundish instead of
squarish, chipped to an edge along the top by Neolithic
man. The Early Paleolithic scale is not so thick as on
the other. Both these specimens show, by their curv-
ing chip-surfaces, that Early Paleolithic man was a
chert-knapper.

Detailed description of Plate XI, showing specimens
not Paleolithic, taken from Mill Creek valley. Be-
ginning at the upper left-hand corner. The figures
show the actual size of the specimens.

No. 5021. Light gray chert, dense and siliceous,
probably a variant of the blue chert of the locality, but-
fresh and wholly unweathered ; battered along the

THB WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.
,,. ■MBgHBTOW — ra — 1 — |M|pF^t4||ft!l|M^

. a

, if*

, •'...'-'•;--.> - -: »•

ft?

5 ^ ■ '.

■■ — r. --->■ - - - — ,- ■■ i- • — ■ ■ -

EARLY PALEOLITHIC, PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC. PAGES 34. 64.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE XL

SHOWING SPECIMENS NOT PALEOLITHIC. PAGE 64.

SPECIMENS NOT PALEOLITHIC.

edges, apparently (or possibly) to bring the piece into
form in the finishing touches, rather than by use as an
implement. The blows that caused the battering were
directed about perpendicularly upon the edge, as in-
dicated by the iact that usually the little slivers flew
in both directions. It is noticeable that sometimes the
most battered points are at places where the edge was
clumsy, or too thick, and that this extra thickness re-
mains even after the battering, indicating that at those
points the edge was at first also unduly prominent.
This delicate implement is perfect in outline, although
it was coarsely chipped out. This Harahey knife (so
named by Mr. Brower) is not characteristically
beveled, and is probably Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5053. Small tomahawk, blue-gray chert, section
rhomboidal. All the chipped surfaces are quite fresh
excepting only- a small space on the reverse side near
the larger end. This remnant, as well as those men-
tioned on the last, cannot be called Paleolithic. The
edges along the sides and on the larger end are bat-
tered as described, and it is important to notice that
this battering descends into the notches and also ap-
pears on the central longitudinal ridge between the
notches, on the reverse side. It does not appear on
the central ridge on the side shown. These facts seem
to show that the battering of the edges was purposely
done in order to shape the outline of the implement,
and is not due to use.

No. 5022. Quivira knife, (from Mr. Brower), blue-
gray chert, canoe-shaped. This is freshly chipped
all over excepting two remnants of an older chipped
surface visible on the reverse side.

66 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

No. 5094. Spear-point, or knife, freshly made from
the blue-gray chert. The edges are battered and the
surface has a sub-gloss which indicates some age.
(p. 35).

No. 5052. Knife, freshly wrought from the blue-
gray chert of the region ; edges are somewhat battered.

No. 50S0. Point, tangless, but conspicuously
barbed ; this specimen is light gray, apparently an al-
tered state of the chert of the region, in that respect
differing from No. 5021, above, which is a different
chert. Its edges are battered. It is freshly made,
but a remnant of an older surface is apparent on the
barb at the right-hand side, while all over the speci-
men there are some facets that exhibit a subdued sub-
gloss like that seen on No. 5091.

No. 5071. Point, blue-gray chert, considerably old-
er than any of the foregoing, but not Paleolithic ; edges
scantily battered as above. The whole outer surface
has a shininess due to age, but not equal to the Paleo-
lithic nor to the Early Neolithic, but approaching the
latter. It shows no fresh chipping.

No. 5031. Scraper or knife, blue-gray chert. In
the main this is fresh,, but has remnants on either side
of older surfaces. Neither end is characteristically
mono-beveled. It might be called a small '"turtle." It
is somewhat battered on the long edges.

No. 5035. Scraper, blue-gray chert, but not of char-
acteristic form nor of mono-beveled end. It is pointed-
ovate. While this is probably of modern make, it is
not fresh like 5021 or 5022, or 5053.

No. 5025. Leaf, altered chert of the region, having
lost its blue-gray color, pointed at both ends. It is

SPECIMENS NOT PALEOLITHIC. G7

freshly made, but exhibits two stages of weathering on
the chipped surfaces, edges slightly battered. The
remnant of the older surface mentioned in the text can
hardly be detected except with a magnifier, and with
favorable reflection of the" light.

No. 5175. Scraper, blue-gray chert, mono-beveled
and thick at the larger end. Edges somewhat bat-
tered. As for age, this is one of the Early Neolithic
specimens, not Paleolithic, though having a somewhat
shining surface due to age; both. sides alike as to age.
Complete and typical.

No. 5024. Point, or bunt, notched, of blue-gray
chert. This was a tanged point of early Neolithic
age as to weathering, and shows fresher fine battering
along the edge.

No. 5024. Point or bunt, or knife, blue-gray chert,
mottled with altered chert. This shows some Paleo-
lithic (?) and Early Neolithic surfaces, but the most of
the chipping is fresh ; edges battered especially in the
notches.

No. 5060. Point, narrow, blue-gray. chert : evidently
a Neolithic implement, but not freshly chipped ; edges
dulled from the notches to the point. Notches slight.

No. 5057. An Early Neolithic flake of blue-gray
chert, chipped about the edges, the notches and the
tang, to the form of a point ; less fresh than those
along the top of the plate.

No. 5060. Point, or knife, like 5060 above, but com-
prising also altered chert. (Perhaps Early Neolithic;
it is not fresh ; it is not Paleolithic).

No. 5061. Point, blue-gray chert. A Neolithic im-
plement, but not freshly chipped.

68 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

For explanation of plate XII, see p. 125, and of
plate XIII see p. 127 and of plate XIV see p. 131.

V. CRITICAL WORKING OBSERVATIONS ON
SOME KANSAS SPECIMENS.-

After the foregoing summary of preliminary results
respecting the Kansas artifacts had been put into shape
for publication, on further examination of the same
collection some interesting new features and some ad-
ditional ideas were developed: It is thought best not
to intercalate these in their places in the original paper,
but to present them somewhat chronologically, as they
were observed. The original paper as here presented
was read by several, including Prof. F. W. Putnam,
of Cambridge, Mass., Judge J. T. Keagy, of Alma, and
Prof. J. E. Todd, of Lawrence, Kansas. Some correc-
tions and suggestions made by them have been used
to make the article correct. The notes which follow
were not thus submitted. However, after these notes
were written, through the mediation of Prof. Putnam
the writer was enable'd to examine a copy of a remark-
able article by Dr. W. Allen Sturge, of Mildenhall,
Suffolk, England, who has recently reached conclu-
sions as to the extension of Neolithic culture into the
pre-Glacial past of aboriginal man quite similar to
those expressed in this article, and the conclusions of
Dr. Sturge are based on a critical study of the kinds
and stages of patination of implements found in Suf-

PALEOLITHS HAVE BEEN USED. 69

folk, and other parts of East Angiia.* It is another
instance of the near contemporaneity of results reached
by different workers along the same line of research,
carried on independently on opposite sides of the
Atlantic. The writer is not familiar with the publica-
tions of French or other continental archeologists. and
it is quite likely that similar distinctions have been ob-
served by them. Dr. Sturge's conclusions are based,
also, on the Glacial striations which his specimens ex-
hibit, proving the later date of the ice-age or ages.

February 15, 1912. I began to lay out a collection of
these artifacts, i. e., of the Paleoliths, which showed
by the battering of the edges that they had been used
for cutting; but I soon found that nearly every one
had been so used. Every one (I hardly know of an
exception) shows a mashing and tine fracturing as
if done by pounding, or other contact, on a piece of
wood or of other stone. This battering is found along
some long edge, or near some angle or place of vant-
age, which could be made to serve as an ax or chopper
in the hand of the owner. It seems as if the full pur-
pose of the knapper was to get a simple edge, whether
on a large piece or on a small one, and that he knew
nothing, or next to nothing, of the finer art required
to make an arrow-point or a scraper. The limit of
their skill was in the formation of a tomahawk or a
turtle back.

Note. Some of the Early Neolithic class show a cal-
careous scale, or "Glacial patina", as I have elsewhere
called it. (Records of flic Past, vol. S, p. 251.)

♦Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Angiia.
Vol. 1, Part 1, 1910.

70 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Paleolithic Culture in Neolithic Time.

February 24, 1912. I
find by continued examin-
ations (of other Kansas
specimens) that the place
of origination of the
scraper, in the Glacial
scale, is still doubtful, as -
there are some patinated jf
specimens which are |
rudely mono-beveled ~
which appear to express *
the scraper idea. I have |

laid out a few. I also find =
a specimen (No. 5069) Z
which is a piece of what *
may have been a "Ouiv- *
ira" knife, like this figure, ©
which not only is patin-
ated by long weathering,
but on being broken, as
shown by the dotted line,
has a distinct, light-col-
ored patina which can be
seen surrounding the unweathered interior, and
which has a nearly uniform thickness, but is thicker
on one surface. It appears, hence, that the feeble
commencement of Neolithic culture was in Paleo-
lithic time. The Ouivira knife in its perfection ap-
peared in' Early Neolithic time. Not only are Paleo-
lithic rude implements found that date from Paleolithic

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS.

time, but lately chipped implements of the same, or
similar, shapes are found in the Kansas valley, the
freshness of which will not allow of their being older
than Neolithic time. Some leaves, or turtles, having
both sides convex, are of this character, also some rude
knives, the latter showing* not infrequently a recent
chipping superposed on a distinctly Paleolithic chip-
ping (5304J, as if the later artizan had tried to con-
tinue, or to improve, the implement for the use for
which it was at first designed. This fact seems to in-
dicate that the idea of the first artizan was satisfied in
the creation of the rude "turtle", and that the later
artizan recognized the idea and attempted simply to
perpetuate it. This sequence is specially evident in
some implements that are not so characteristically
"blanks", but are leaves (5309) somewhate ovate,
whose edges are battered by use. It appears hence
Paleolithic culture persisted in some degree in Neo-
lithic time.

There is no doubt in my mind that the Paleolithic
implements, especially the oblong or ovate-oblong
so-called "turtles" or "blanks", of W. H. Holmes, as
found here were completed implements as they now
exist, since the long edges are frequently battered by
use; and the same is true of those larger rude imple-
ments which taper roughly to a blunt point or so as
to afford a handle for a person who wished to use
them as hand axes or gouges This statement is true,
also, of numerous other pieces of irregular and pur-
poseless shapes, but which happened to develope a
long suitable edge in the process of rough chipping.
Such pieces are battered along the edges thus pro-

72 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

duced. I have about reached the conclusion to put
all artifacts whose culture precludes Paleolithic in the
Early Neolithic, which have a marked shininess per-
taining to the youngest chipping, and retain in the
Neolithic only those whose latest chipping is evidently
fresh. Of course there are numerous specimens that
show two stages of chipping, and in such cases the
latest chipping is often designed to carry to more
exact completion the design which was apparent in
the earlier chipping. But in other cases the design
is apparent only in the later chipping. This is very
often the case with the mono-beveled scrapers. The
large flakes which certainly were produced in large
numbers by Paleolithic man, (as well as by the Early
Neolithic) were employed by the later men to make the
conventional scraper. The flat side (i. e. that which
cleaved from the core) is longer weathered than the
surfaces formed by the beveling, sometimes being
Paleolithic, but more frequently Early Neolithic, and
when the latter they can hardly be distinguished some-
times from Neolithic beveling. No beveling of this
kind has been found which can be called Paleolithic.

Iron Mould.

March 9, 101*2. I notice that some Paleolithic pieces
which have a light gray color throughout acquire a
blue-gray color by weathering. This change occurs
sometimes in oolitic parts, and is rare. There is also
a curious sprinkling of iron rust. It is found but oc-
casionally, and prevails along the crests of anticlinal
ridges formed by the intersection of two fracture
planes, but it also occurs on smooth surfaces. It ap-

IRON MOULD. 73

parently is not cine to the oxidation of contained pyrite,
but appears to be entirely a deposition from the out-
side, (see however p. 128). Occasionally it forms an
interrupted small streak running in an unexpected and
unexplainable direction across a flat or slightly curv-
ing surface, as if some iron tool had left a portion of
itself on the spot on being dragged across it. This
idea is strengthened by the finding of a spot wihch
gives a metallic luster, somewhat striated, in which a
few centers of oxidation were to be seen, exactly like
those which occur generally. (These so-called metal-
lic surfaces I find, later, are natural cleavages of the
limonite.)

March 18, 1912. How to account for the curious
distribution of brown hematite (already mentioned) is
a puzzle. Can it be as follows? It is essentially a
very late, probably post-Glacial, effect, and as iron
oxide is the chief coloring agent in turning the chert
brown, can any cause be named that would make it
accumulate in this manner? The most evident feature
in this oxide of iron, in its manner of distribution, is
its accumulation in streaks, such as may have been
formed by a hard tool (iron apparently, but perhaps
another chert) dragged forcibly over the surface of the
chert where the oxide has formed by chemical secre-
tion. In case the surface of the chert were slightly
crushed or powdered along such an accidental streak,
would the crushed condition of the surface cause a
more rapid deposition or a detention of iron along such
a streak (or scratch) ? I notice also that this curious
accumulation is along a narrow belt where the chert is
not crushed, but is covered by a thin coating of some-

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

thing like evaporated albumen, having a glistening
surface when not removed by friction nor covered by
the oxide.

• March 19, 191*2. When this brown hematite occurs
along a ridge formed by the intersections of two flake
surfaces, which is very common, it seems impossible to
ascribe it to a scratch by some hard foreign tool or
other substance. In such cases I see it is not only
scattered along the whole crest of the ridge, coloring
the surface in a narrow strip, but forms, at somewhat
regular intervals, little bunches, or concretionary
spheres which lie exactly on' the crest of the ridge,
these being evidently simply local enlargements due
to greater deposition from ferriferous solution. These
little concretions are so numerous sometimes as to
form almost a continuous line, but being hollow they
can easily be broken and removed, after which there
remains only a portion of their crusts. It is not found
exclusively on ridges, but occasionally on flat or curv-

crest is interrupted by some means, and a slight de-
pression takes its place, but the irony deposit divides,

ing surfaces. The appearance sug-
gests that from the lower ( ?) side of
an artifact ferriferous water was slow-
ly trickling and evaporating, and that
the iron in solution had slowly gath-
ered on evaporation of the water, after
the manner of stalactites. The ridge,
in any case, governed the deposition, as
to place, since, in one case, a distribu-
tion is seen like this figure. At a is a
te running along a crest, at b the

Streak of
Iron Mould.

line of limoni

VARIATION OF THE CHERT.

following the two new crests formed, surrounds the
slight depression, and uniting again at c, continues
further as one streak. There is, however, in no case
observed, any calcareous deposition cotemporary.

On a Paleolith from Loire Bassin (No. 2229) similar
irony spots, in form of isolated small scales, but of
darker color, are sprinkled over one surface, apparent-
ly the surface which was downward during a long
period, though they are absent from the other surface.
They are not on the ridges but in the depressions or on
planes that slightly curve downward. They are
wholly wanting on the ridges, — or occur there only
accidentally and rarely. On the specimen from Thet-
ford drift (222S) of England, only two spots are found
where such accumulation of iron is seen, and these are
on ridges, in manner comparable with the accumula-
tion on the Kansas artifacts.

Variation of the Chert.

This chert passes into a porous, siliceous chert-look-
ing rock containing many minute fossils, which weath-
ers to a rusty brown. This occasionally is seen ad-
herent on some of the' implements, and rarely consti-
tutes the sole material of some of the implements.
This does not effervesce, and should not be mistaken
for the limestone of the region. The chert also varies
in the compactness of grain, becoming occasionally
very fine-grained and hard, approaching flint and
agate, and along with this compact texture and dense-
ness of grain it is somewhat variegated in color.
These can be seen sometimes in the same specimen,
one of the colors being pinkish. I do not know that

76 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Mr. Brower's "pink chert", supposed by him to have
been imported from Missouri, can all be referred to
local variation in the Kansas chert, but it seems to me
to be possible, and may have been common in Mis-
souri.

Criteria of the Different Ages of Weathering.

March 7, 1912. There are plainly three weathering
stages which are evident and easily distinguishable,
viz., Early Paleolithic, Paleolithic and Neolithic. The
Early Neolithic is indefinite, it shades into the Neo-
lithic in various steps of approach and rarely it is also
difficult to decide on the basis of weathering alone
between Paleolithic and Early Neolithic.

The Early Paleolithic (and the Pre-paleolithic)

chipped surface is characterized by:

(1) The deepest alteration of color. This colored
scale may be

(a) a dirty, cream-colored white, formed on a

somewhat vesicular gray chert, illustrated
by the two specimens seen in plate X. Its
thickness is very apparent, varying from
that of card paper to three or four times
that thickness ; and sometimes, apparently
on the protected (lower) surface of a speci-
men, this scale is distinctly stained with
iron rust, even becoming pinkish or red.
This scale is smooth but not glossy.

(b) a brownish-yellow, formed on a dark gray, or

blue-gray, and dense chert. Its thickness is
about the same as the last, but its surface
is glossy and has a darker brown color, al-
most raw umber brown. The contrast be-
tween this weather-scale and the interior

PRE-PALEOLITHIC SURFACES.

is very marked, especially when any part of

glossy exterior is preserved.
(2) By a change in the texture of the chert, by
which the chert, when fractured, exhibits a
finely granular internal structure, having a
harsh feel. This is true whatever the color
of the scale. This granular internal struc-
ture can hardly be seen except with a magni-
fying glass. It seems to have been formed
by minutely fine sedimentary deposition,
since sometimes a scattering of grains of
different color can be distinguished.

Prc-Paleolithic surfaces, not chipped, are rotted and
spongy, and not glossy, whitish or somewhat rusty
with iron, and even reddish by concentration of iron
oxide. The rotted scale may be of any thickness up to
half an inch.

The Paleolithic weathered chipped surface is character-
ized by

(1) An alteration of color like the foregoing, but
less extended, the thickness of the scale be-
ing generally not more than one-half or even
one-eighth of that of the foregoing, and
sometimes almost imperceptible as a weath-
er-scale ; yet manifested by a superficial
change of color.

(a) If the interior of the chert is blue-gray the
surface color is likely to be the same, but
lighter colored, especially on one side of the
specimen, i. e., that which was downward
during a long exposure, or when it was oth-
erwise sheltered from atmospheric friction.
The surface of a blue-gray artifact which
was not so sheltered shows an accumulation
of what appears to be dirt, but it is inti-

78 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

mately united with the surface of the chert,
and will not wash off, nor brush off, giving
the specimen a dirty aspect, although the
surface may show a glossiness at the same
time.

But sometimes a dense specimen having
a light Hue-gray interior, or a light gray in-
terior, becomes more deeply blue, or blue-
gray, on the immediate surface, but the
weathered scale, below the blue surface, is
brown and vitrified.

(b) If the interior of. the chert is dense and light-
colored, i. e., a light gray, the weather sur-
face may be about the same, but tinted with
yellow (or with blue-gray, as mentioned
last above). If it be somewhat vesicular
and light-colored the alteration is deeper,
but of the same yellowish light color.
(2) Uniformly, some portion of a Paleolithic arti-
fact, along with coarse and rude chipping,
will show more or less glossiness. This
glossiness sometimes is hardly perceptible
on an artifact of the light-colored and vehi-
cular chert, and on more dense chert if the
specimen has been sheltered from atmos-
pheric friction. A glossy surface, however,
can be acquired in a shorter period when the
dense artifact is favorably exposed to blow-
ing dust and sand on the prairies. If the
specimen be not accompanied by rude and
coarse chipping, nor by a thin weather-scale,
the artifact probably belongs in a later stage
of culture.

Paleolithic and Early Paleolithic artifacts sometimes
show glacial patina.

CHARACTERISTIC WEATHERING. 79

In general, the denser the grain the thinner the
weather scale and the better the gloss.

A weather-scale may exist without any glossiness,
and a glossiness may exist with no perceptible weath-
er-scale, the latter in the Early Neolithic specimens.

An Early Xcolithic weathered chipped artifact is
marked by no perceptible (or very slight) depth of
weather-scale, but shows a change of surface color or
a glossy surface, or both, in whole or in part, usually
combined with finer work; glacial -patina occurs some-
times on these.

A Neolitliie implement shows, normally, neither a
weather-scale nor a glossy surface, but it is often diffi-
cult to determine between Early Neolithic and Neo-
lithic, owing to successive chipping of the same piece,
and to similarity of culture and probably also to differ-
ences of exposure. In this paper the term "Neolithic"
is applied only to those artifacts which are so freshly
chipped as to be referable to the present Indian dyn-
asty.

Gradation of Culture Stages.
, There is a gradation of culture stages into each other
so that they overlap in the Early Neolithic, thus :

Early Paleolithic

Paleolithic mm,^.mmwr..

m0m Early Neolithic

Neolithic

The culture of the Paleolithic, so far as shown by
the chipping and the nature of the implements, extend-
ed into the Early Neolithic, and the Early Neolithic
into the Neolithic, but in diminishing force. Appar-

80 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

ently some Paleolithic forms were fabricated in Early
Neolithic time (perhaps also in Neolithic, but these
have not yet been certainly identified), and Early Neo-
lithic culture forms were fabricated in Neolithic time,
showing- the Neolithic freshness ; but the converse is
not true, i. e., in proceeding up the stream of progres-
sive culture the new and higher forms seem to cease
suddenly and entirely. Few specimens (one only, v.
p. 70) having an Early Neolithic culture have been
found in Paleolithic time, i. e., with Paleolithic
weather-scale, but sometimes with what cannot be dis-
tinguished from a Paleolithic gloss. In the same way,
Paleolithic chipping, so far as seen as yet, is separable
from Early Paleolithic. (This is to be further tested).

(April G, In general these distinctions appear to be
sustained, but need further verification.)

(June 8, These statements are O. K.)

March 13th. It is apparent that many so-called
"points" were knives, and were fastened on the ends of
handles. This is shown by their frequent battered
edges, and by the fact that many of them are too large
for use as arrow-points.

That the grain of the chert, whether fine and dense,
tor coarser and loose, has much to do with the exist-
ence of a gloss on the weathered surface, is quite
evident, not only by the comparison of separate indi-
vidual specimens, but especially by the appearance
of a knife (point) No. 5433. This specimen is com-
posed of two sorts of chert, both kinds having a tend-
ency to pink. These kinds are irregularly distributed
with respect to each other, but they are persistently
distinct, though in immediate contact. The coarser

CRITICAL NOTES. 81

kind is pink, and never polished, coarser grained and
sparsely sprinkled with fine fossil fragments which
are white. The dense kind is mostly brown, with a
shade of red, and is uniformly glossy, with no visible
fossil remains. The glossiness on the brown surface
causes its classification as Early Neolithic, although
the appearance of the other chert would indicate a
Neolithic age.

Critica I 0 bserva t ions.

March 14. A fine Early Neolithic point (No. 5463)
shows partly pink and partly brown, and the colors
grade into each other, indicating that they are differ-
ent stages of ferruginization, and, because elsewhere
both the pink and the brown separately grade into the
blue-gray chert, they can be both assigned to a change
in the originally blue-gray, but a change carried out
while in the rock containing the chert.

Significance of a Gloss.

March 15, 1912. I notice that in the case of a lot of
broad points (5475 to 5484), all from the "Kilian site"
and quite similar, almost identical in size and shape,
and apparently referable to the same date as to style,
culture and weathering, while the most of them have
to be classed as Early Neolithic on account of the ex-
istence of more or less glossiness, yet a few (6 or 8 in
31) show no gloss and, under the rule under which I
am working, these are classed as Neolithic. It is
apparent from this, and from other facts observed, that
Neolithic specimens might acquire a gloss, and that
the existence of a gloss is not a sure guide to the age

82 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

of the specimen. This applies to some specimens
showing a glossiness which may actually be Neolithic,
although put in the Early Neolithic group. Still it
may be that these presumed Neolithic specimens have
lost a gloss (if they ever had it) or may have been
so protected from friction that they could not acquire
it, though as old as those that have it. At least it is
evidence that the criterion (gloss or no gloss) is on^
that may have exceptions, and must be employed with
caution.

See further, under "Different rates of patination,*'
p. 102.

I have already noted that even Paleolithic artifacts
sometimes (though rarely) show but little glossiness.

Specimen No. 5502 is a rude, irregular blade, seven
inches long and nearly four inches wride. The central
portion, on one side, is of Paleolithic age, with undulat-
ing, forced, fracture-surfaces. All around the edge
this piece has been chipped in Early Neolithic time,
and in part, apparently, in Neolithic, but the later
working did not much change the shape nor evident
purpose of the implement.

Persistence of Paleolithic Culture.

From this it appears that Early Neolithic man was
satisfied, in some instances, to use a very rude imple-
ment, and even to chip out one, though he frequentlv
employed a Paleolithic implement as a base. Numer-
ous artifacts showing Paleolithic and Early Neolithic
chipping indicate an approximation toward identity
of culture, so far as can be determined by the remain-
ing Paleolithic surfaces, but others show, along with

v..

PERSISTENCE OF PALEOLITHIC CULTURE. 83

more recent chipping", a wide separation and approach
toward Neolithic culture. Were it not for the differ-
ences of weathering, a casual examination could not
separate them, in some cases, and the whole might
be placed in one age, only requiring some such dis-
tinction as "cache" implements, or "blanks" to receive
the "Paleoliths" whatever their age. It appears that
the Paleolithic artizan, at least his art, was not wholly
replaced by Early Xeolithic art.

Relative X umber of Early Neolithic Specimens.

I find that by far the greatest number of artifacts,
judged by the age of the weathering, fall into Early
Xeolithic time. There are very few that can be cer-
tainly classed as Xeolithic (according to the foregoing
definitions), and none of these, so far as examined,
are "polished" (i. e. ground) implements. They sim-
ply show recent chipping. There are not so many
whose entire surface is plainly Paleolithic, and fewer
still Early Paleolithic, and there are some whose cul-
ture and whose glossy surface would allow of their
being either Paleolithic or Early X"eolithic. But along
with a patina of gloss, a, true Paleolithic usually ex-
hibits also some weather-scale — but still the gloss may
be wanting and only a weather-scale of white or brown
then may determine its Paleolithic age. A specimen
showing chipping of two or more dates is classed in
accordance with the latest chipping.

Weather Scales Are Sometimes White And Sometimes

Brown.

March 31, 1912. Xotc. Query: Why are the old-
est surfaces sometimes brown and. sometimes white,

S4 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

or nearly white? It is evident that when the surface
is white all the color elements, chiefly iron, have been
removed from the chert, and only the silica remains,
and that when the oldest surface is brown, there has
been added to the chert some coloring element, chiefly
iron. It follows that in order to answer the question
it is necessary to find some cause for this different ac-
tion of iron. It is probable that the cause is some
way connected with the chemical environment. In
one case iron is supplied to the chert and hence there
must have been more in the environment than in the
chert. In the other case either some acid surroundings
leached out the iron from the chert, or perhaps the
presence of decaying organic matter caused its re-
moval. Decaying organic matter, as in a peat bog,
causes the accumulation of iron in and about itself,
abstracting it from waters that carry it in solution.
It may be, therefore, that acidulated waters and de-
caying organic matter may both be concerned in the
production of this diffeernce of weather scale, the
former to abstract the iron, by solution, from the
surface of the chert where conditions were favorable,
and the latter to cause its accumulation on other sur-
faces when situated in the presence of decaying organic
matter, as in a low tract of land where the prairie (or
the forest) vegetation accumulated over the specimen,
or in situations where drainage was not free.

April 1, 1912. Again, I have noticed that, on some
specimens, weather scales of both colors are present,
on the same surface, the brown one next the uncolored
chert, and the white one. (which is usually a dirt*'
white) on the exterior. Ordinarily, the first effect of

WEATHER SCALES OF DIFFERENT COLORS. S5

weathering, so far as change of color extends, i. e.,
after the formation of a gloss, is the deepening of color
by the accumulation of a rusty coating, and by the ab-
sorption of iron into the meshes of the chert. By
some change in the chemical environment the surface
of the brown scale seems to have been deprived of its
color element and converted superficially to a white
color. There are. besides, considerable masses of the
chert which are deeply altered in color by the absorp-
tion of iron, sometimes becoming buff-white, or yel-
lowish-brown, or merely reddish or pinkish, and some
artifacts are made wholly of such colored chert. Of
course such coloration must have been produced be-
fore the chert of which the specimens are composed,
was extracted from the parent rock, and while the con-
ditions of its environment were dependent on the for-
mation carrying the chert. Ordinary superficial weath-
ering, however, due to exposure in Pliestocene and
post-Glacial time, affects only a scale of varying thick-
ness, or which indeed is so thin as to be almost in-
visible.

There is a question as to the significance and dura-
bility of a gloss on a weathered surface. Can it have
rotted and been followed by a patina of decay?

Unfinished Edges On "Turtles."

April 1, 101"?. In some instances it is noticeable that
artifacts of the "turtle" form are not completed, but
an edge, at one end or the other, is left unchipped,
and so dull, or fiat, that it was utterly impossible to
use it for cutting meat or other objects. Such un-
finished edge is thicker, and sometimes would furnish

SG WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

a partial handle, or such enlargement that in the grasp
of the hand the implement could have been more se-
curely and effectively wielded. Whether it were in-

AN INSTRUCTIVE SPECIMEN. ST

tended for such a purpose or not, it has also occurred
to me that perhaps the edge for which the artifact was
made was developed gradually, and that in the exig-
encies of savage life the artizan found it necessary to
interrupt his chipping and to use, or to allow to be
used, such edged portion as was ready, calculating to
finish the implement at a later date. At such later
date he would probably chip another part of the edge,
or all of it, and thus have a fresh and keen cutting
edge for later service. This may explain not only the
existence of wholly unchipped portions of the edge,
but also the contrasts which the' two edges of an im-
plement sometimes present, one edge (along one side)
being considerably more dulled by use than the other.

Early Paleolithic, Paleolithic and Early 'Neolithic Chip-
ping on the Same Specimen.

April 2, 1912. The specimen figured on p. 8G, (No.
55*?3) is quite interesting and suggestive. It is brown
all over, on all sides and edges, except where Early
Neolithic chipping has served to give it a mono-clinal
bevel at the broader end, where it is gray. It was a
Paleolithic knife made of a flake from an Early Paleo-
lithic parent mass, the only remaining part of the
Early Paleolithic surface being on the convex side of
the specimen, as indicated in Figure (2). The Paleo-
lithic chipping developed two cutting edges a and b.
Of these, a was much used in Paleolithic time, as
evinced by the dulled edge and by the brown-patin-
ated, fine and worn fracture-surfaces which extend the
whole length of the edge (/ as far to the point where
a later chipping has removed them and furnished the

88 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

implement with a new sharp edge which remains
nearly entire and fresh. The edge b is battered also
somewhat by use, some of which appears as fresh as
the mono-bevel at the broad end. The paleolithic
surface shown in Figure (2) is reddish-brown and the
patina is much thinner than the brown Early Paleo-
lithic surface which it intersects. The thickness of the
brown-patinated scale can be seen all along the convex
back of the specimen from one end to the other. It is
about as thick as card paper. The thickness of the
weather-patina on the Paleolithic surface is also visible
at the line of intersection of the Paleolithic surfaces
in Figure (2). The Early Neolithic surface shown
in Figs. (2) and (3) is characterized by finer flaking,
by a gray color, and by a glossiness such as appears
on all those artifacts which have been classed as Early
Neolithic. This glossiness in other specimens is some-
times distinguished with uncertainty from that which
is Paleolithic, but in this specimen there is no uncer-
tainty, inasmuch as two other earlier-chipped surfaces
are brown with an old patina, which certainly removes
them from the age of the Early Neolithic, and which
shows that during Paleolithic time the specimen was
exposed to the weather under circumstances that were
almost identical with those of Early Paleolithic time,
but less prolonged. On the Early Neolithic surface
there is no brown color, but the gray color of the chert
has a faint tinge of buff, which is no doubt due to the
action of ferruginated water, since the latest chipping
was done, and which, if continued long enough, would
finally produce a brown patina scale such as seen on
the rest of the specimen.

V-

SUCCESSIVE WEATHER SCALES. S9

It might be mentioned further that near the crest
formed by the intersection of the Early Paleolithic sur-
face with the later chipping (Figure 2) is to be seen a
small amount of the iron rust already mentioned as if
deposited in the manner of stalactites in caves.

(June S, 1912. The foregoing described specimen
was lost somewhere in Ohio on my late expedition
during May, probably at Newark, Ohio. It had al-
ready been shown and interpreted to a number of
archeologists and others in Kansas and Missouri.)

Successive Weather Scales.

April 7, 1912. In the matter of weathering, and the
colors assumed by the weather scale, it appears plain
that the first effect is the formation of a gloss. By
long-continued exposure this gloss is lost (or may be
lost) and a slow decay begins, this decayed scale being
sometimes white and sometimes brown, depending
upon the environment, and if brown it may become
quite thick, and may then be covered by a white
scale. This is illustrated by specimen No. 5115, of
plate IX. Below both of these scales, in some cases,
can be seen layers alternating with each other two or
three times, white and brown, and deepest of all there is
a purple scale. These repeated alternations are too
deep, especially the purple layer, to warrant the suppo-
sition that they denote successive epochs of surface ex-
posure when they w ere attacked directly by the weath-
er. They indicate, more likely, variations in the inten-
sity of the weathering forces, or in the supply of the
coloring elements, before removal from the parent
rock, by reason of which a banding was given to the

v..

90 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

mass of the chert which recalls the banding of colors
seen in banded airate. This, however, is a rare feature
of the Kansas chert. It is seen sometimes at Flint
ridge, Ohio.

Uniform ity of the Kansas Chert.

April 9, 1912. I have found the chert quite uniform
in color and texture, within certain" limits of variation.
It is sometimes denser, and then is likely to have a
dull gray color, and also is sometimes banded with
brown-gray, and when dense it is sometimes brown
throughout. These dense specimens acquire and re-
tain a gloss easily, while the blue-gray, being softer,
sometimes seems to acquire a color scale of slight de-
cay rather than a gloss, and in some cases I have
suspected that they had a gloss at first but have lost it
by reason of different exposure. In general this blue-
gray and rather soft chert is not exactly comparable
with the Chalk flint of England in this respect, and it
cannot be expected to exhibit (as it does not) the
bright, firm gloss seen on those specimens.

I have one white quartzyte scraper (5514) the ma-
terial of which probably came from the local drift. I
have seen no chert, as yet, which must be excluded
unqualifiedly from the local chert beds, as a source, —
except one small triangular point (5599) which is
black.

Paleolithic or Early Xeolithic?

April 10, 1912. It may be necessary to allow to the
Paleolithic fabricator the idea of a rough knife, since I
find one (5592) on which there is a distinct white

PALKOLITHIC OR EARLY NEOLITHIC? 01

weather-scale which, though thin, is no thinner than
some seen on some Paleoliths. The coarse chipping
also would allow the Paleolithic date. (See note of
February 24).

The difficulties with allowing specimen No. 5592 in
the Paleolithic group are as follows:

1. It is distinctly chipped to a knife shape, having
a point and a regular curve on each edge, coming to
a rounded end.

2. Its rounded end shows a few finer chip-scars,
bringing the shape more to a bevel, though by no
means like the mono-bevel of the scraper.

3. It is an entire knife-like implement, and finished,
and was used as a knife, as proved by the battering
of the long edges.

4. It has no gloss, and yet only a very thin weather
scale.

None of these characters is known, as yet. in the
Paleolithic group. It is the coarseness of the chipping
which gives this knife a Paleolithic aspect. It seems,
therefore, better to allow coarse chipping in the Early
Xeolithic epoch than to disregard all these features
and put the specimen as yet in the Paleolithic epoch.*

Loss of a Glossy Surface.

The idea of a specimen having lost a gloss is con-
firmed by one of those numbered 5603. It is a pink
chert "core." An old surface has no gloss, but a
smooth surface and a very thin weather scale. Where
this is intersected by an Early Xeolithic chipping the

*It was found later that this knife falls in the Early Neo-
lithic, along with tomahawks and others [Early Neolithic
No. 1].

92 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

later chipped sufaces are glossy — distinctly glossy, the
material being the same. The older surface, therefore,
may be Paleolithic, and probably was once as glossy
as the Early Neolithic sufaces are now.

Pink Chert.

Mr. Brower, in his note book Xo. 20, March 11 and
24, 1902, declares that the peculiar pink chert is "in
place" in southern Missouri, on the head branches of
the Osage river, especially on Sac (Sauk) river. He
says he procured 6000 of these (pink) chert imple-
ments. In course of examination these have not yet
been found.

The Tomahawk People.

April 23, 1912. It is becoming more and more prob-
able, as I get familiar with the specimens, that not only
most of the specimens are Early Neolithic, extending
through several Glacial epochs, but that the ''toma-
hawk people/' the typical people of the ancient Ouivira
region, were not Paleolithic, although "pre-Glacial"
with regard to the Wisconsin epoch, yet post-Glacial
with regard to the Kansas epoch, and hence Early
Neolithic.

April 26, 1912. I notice that the tomahawks, char-
acteristic of Mr. Brower's "tomahawk people" (Nos.
5673 to 5678) are distinctly less weathered than the
specimens which I have classed as Paleolithic. As Mr.
Brower says in his notebook that these tomahawks are
found on the tops of terraces outside of the Kansas
moraine (yet in the Kansas valley), and as these ter-
races are (questionably) due to the damming of the

; V-

PALEOLITHIC AND EARLY NEOLITHIC. 93

river by the Kansas ice,* the tomahawk people are for
that reason also probably post-Kansan and hence not
"Paleolithic" according to the definition of Paleolithic
in this paper. That is as it should be. and leaves the
Paleoliths still as pre-Kansan, and harmonious with
their weather patina. (See further p. 96).

Incipient Scraper.

June 21, 1912. I find a number of large flakes, suit-
able for making scrapers, with a flat surface on one
side but not mono-beveled to a scraper about the
broader end (5731). These are Early Neolithic.
Some of them are in part chipped about one end, or
nearly all round, as if the scraper idea was incipient
in the mind of the maker, but not yet actualized in a
perfect implement.

Neolithic "Turtlcr

I find also a Neolithic large turtle (5725), or "blank",
coarsely chipped and indistinguishable from the Early
Neolithic except by the freshness of the chipping.

Limitation of the Terms Paleolithic and Early Neolithic.

June 25, 1912. In renumbering the specimens (with
ink) I find a specimen (5397) which has the general
aspect of an Early Neolithic but the culture of Paleo-
lithic time, in that its design appears to have been no
higher than to (jet an edge, and its three edges show
that the fabricator was satisfied with that accomplish-
ment, for they have been battered by use This, and

*Thc terrace on which these tomahawks are found may
date from Tertiary time, the river having- been the discharge
from a Tertiarv lake that existed in western Kansas. (Aug,
1912).

94 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

a few other facts observed give me a suggestion that
some re-arrangement is needed in the definition and
limitation of the terms Paleolithic and Early Neolithic,
v. p. 104.

This (539?) I find is one of a group of six, which
are registered "pieces or cores". But the rest of the
group do not show edges which have been used like
the edges of this one. They are approximately globu-
lar, and have been used apparently as chipping ham-
mers.

Paleolithic Culture Continued into Neolithic Time.
June 28, 1912. In going again through those first
classed as Neolithic I find:

1. Many are Early Neolithic — judged by the gloss
which more or less covers them.

2. Of tomahawks, a few are Neolithic, judged by
the absence of gloss.

3. Of large leaves, or turtles, which prevail in
Early Neolithic and Paleolithic time, three are found
without gloss and are apparently of Neolithic time, —
although one of them has remaining a little calcareous
scale, indicating the action of a Glacial epoch. They
are completed specimens., and not "blanks". They have
been battered by use. They are No. 5307.

From Nos. 2 and 3, foregoing, it seems necessary to
infer that Paleolithic culture did not cease with the
introduction of higher art. It seems to be necessary
to admit the actuality of a series, or succession of
stages, such as has been shown by Holmes, in the de-
velopment of a perfect or well-finished implement
wholly in Neolithic time. P>ut that does not do away
with Paleolithic implements made in Paleolithic time.

PALEOLITHIC CULTURE IN NEOLITHIC TIME. 95

Paleolithic art would naturally and necessarily pre-
cede Neolithic. It is not reasonable to assume that
Neolithic art. in its perfection, sprang at once into
activity. It seems to have required a long- period of
time for the growth of sufficient skill to fashion the
Neolithic implement from the Paleolithic, but it is evi-
dent that every Neolith was fashioned from a funda-
mental Paleolithic shape. The fact that only Paleo-
lithic forms are found with the patina of age proves
that the Neolithic, forms were developed later, and
probably by improvement on the art of the Paleolith.
We have to admit, then, the existence of rude (i. e.,
Paleolithic) forms both in Paleolithic and Neolithic
time, and we cannot exclude them from any stage in
the development of the art of stone-chipping. The
important thing is to admit their basal importance in
the development of the art, whether in the time re-
quired for the growth of the art, or in the fabrication
of an individual specimen. Mr. Holmes has demon-
strated the latter, but has seen no evidence of the for-
mer, or at least when he has seen it he has refused to
admit its validity. It seems to me that one is the
subsidiary complement- of- the other, and that when
fully and properly understood neither can exist with-
out the other. That is, if we have a Neolithic imple-
ment that fact implies an earlier Paleolithic form, not
only for that implement itself but also for the com-
mencement of the art. Or, if we have a Paleolithic
implement, that fact implies, according to the known
progress of man in the art of stone chipping, the ex-
istence sooner or later of a "finished" Neolithic imple-
ment, and that Neolithic implement may be made all in

90 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

one day from the rude Paleolithic shape, or it may re-
quire the patient labor and development of thousands
* of years. It is only by the weather patination. ceteris
paribus, that Paleolithic blades can be distinguished
from the rude Neolithic. "V. also p. 98.

Tomahawks Have Never Been Withed.

There are reasons for believing that the so-called
tomahawks have never been mounted by having a
withe bound around them for handles.

1. They show no wearing where such withes would
have been bound about the tomahawk.

2. They show a battering along the lateral edges
which extends along the most of the length of the spec-
imens, such battering descending into the notch where
it is to be presumed the tying descended. (Many
tanged points., however, show the same.;

3. There is no evidence of a groove on the side of
the specimen where the withe might have grasped the
body of the specimen between the notches.

4. Sometimes the notches on the sides are not op-
posite each other, and sometimes they are obsolescent
and even wholly wanting.

The Scraper.

June 20, 1912. As to the scraper, there are some
variants from the typical form which tend to the belief
that we do not know yet with certainty the purpose of
this implement, viz :

1. Th ere are many that show an under-chipping at
the bevel end, so as to cause a retreating of the out-

DIFFERENT SIGNS OF AGE.

line along that end backward, along the flat surface.
The profile of such is like this figure:

2. There is occasionally one that has both ends
mono-bevelled, at the same time one being under-
chipped.

3. Some are so small that they would have been of
no use as scrapers of hides, and some of these small
ones are under-chipped. The smallest I have noted is
exactly 3/4 in. long.

June 30, 1912. Besides a glossing which comes on
some specimens (I may say most specimens) with age,
there is also a roughness which denotes age. This
appears on specimens that are light colored (5552),
and is due to a variation of internal grain. When such
specimens are broken freshly, or cut, such variation
of internal grain cannot 'be' observed, but on weather-
ing there is developed, on the surface, along with an
imperfect scattered fine porosity, a gentle roughness
which brings into relief the firmer and coarser ele-
ments of the rock. There seems to be no difference
in the chemical composition. It is only a difference in
the manner of siliceous aggregation. Sometimes the
shapes of fine fossils can be seen in this roughened
rock, and sometimes this roughness and this glossi-
ness can be seen on the same specimen, the glossiness

Different Signs of Age.

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

being usually on a variety of dense blue-gray rock.
(5678)

Continuation of Paleolithic Culture.

July 9, 1912. Referring to what is stated on pages
94 and 95 respecting the continuation of the Paleo-
lithic culture as evinced by leaves or turtles, into Early
Neolithic and even into Neolithic time, I think further
that it would be warrantable to state as a general
principle that: All Paleolithic art was perpetuated,
or may have been perpetuated, into Early Neolithic
and Neolithic time, and all Early Neolithic into Neo-
lithic, and hence that the progress of stone-chipping
was essentially a continual introduction of new forms
and higher skill without the necessary loss of any of
the older forms. This I think can be shown respect-
ing the following kinds : leaves, tomahawks, scrapers
and knives.

Beyond the latitude of the Kansan moraine it would
be inevitable that artifacts showing all stages of pat-
inization should be found, and that, too, on the same
sites, while on the northerly side of that moraine a
pre-Kansan artifact would be found but rarely and still
more rarely inside the Wisconsin moraine. (V. plates
XV and XYII.) Between those moraines a long period
of time elapsed, such that great advance in the art of
stone-chipping probably was made. Some of these in-
termorainic artifacts, i. e., the oldest of them, ought
to show a nearer approach to the pre-Kansan artifacts
in both culture and age, than others, and some of them,
if the foregoing general principle be true, ought to ap-
proximate toward Neolithic and even ought to grade,

LEFT HANDEDNESS?

in both respects, into Xeolithic. This would be illus-
trated by artifacts found southward from the glaciated
areas, while to the northward from the great moraine
belts, there would be necessarily more or less evident
steps of improvement in culture, pari passu with less
and less patination, on passing from the outside of any
moraine to the area within it.

Left Handedness of Early Xeolitliic Man.

As to scrapers, again, in addition to what is written
on page 9G, I have discovered evidence that the under-
chipping mentioned is due to rough usage as an im-
plement, viz: (1) it is most commonly a little to one
side from the center of the implement, as if the tool
were held in the hand, and in use had been turned
somewhat to one side to give it effective application —
and I have noticed that it is most frequently to the
left of the center when viewed perpendicularly on the
flat surface, as if the user held it in what we know
as the right hand. This may indicate that the abor-
igines were left and right-handed. (2) I have seen the
same kind of underchipping extending along one side
of the tool more than half way to the other end, evi-
dently due to use, there dying out into little irregular
chatter-marks or checks.

Hence it appears that this under-chipping was not
caused by a systematic flaking, by a hammer or other
flaking tool, but by a rasping or scraping of the edge
of the scraper on some substance.

(3) Where this under-chipping appears there is a
recession of the edge back upon the body of the scraper

100 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

so as to distort the otherwise symmetrical outline, this
proving that the under-chipping was not a step in the
making of the implement, but was in some way super-
induced after the implement was finished.

July 11, 1912. I have examined a lot with reference
to the right or the left hand use of the scraper.* In
making the selection I discarded those which showed
only a central undercutting, and also those which man-
ifested no noticeable difference as to right or left hand
use. I found 39 which indicated a right hand use, and
19 that indicated use with the left hand, and probably
10 that showed no difference. The figures below illus-
trate this.

Showing Right Hand Use. Showing- Left Hand Use.

*"On Lefthandedness in North American Aboriginal Art."
See D. G. Brinton, Am. Anth. vol. IX, p. 175, May, 1896.

V-

IM PERFECT HARAHEI" KNIVES. 101

Imperfect Harahey Knives.
July 23, 1912. One of those knives numbered 5162,
while having the same shape as the others of the same
number, has one side for two-thirds of its length mono-
beveled, like a Harahey knife thus:

• <4

Imperfect Harahey Kuives.

The whole knife has a semi-gloss, and on that char-
acter is put with Early Neolithic implements.

The mono-beveled edge is thicker than the edge at
any other place.

Still another (5170) is mono-beveled on both edges'
at one end and is not beveled throughout the rest.

: v.

102 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

About one-half the length is thus mono-beveled. This
is doubtfully Early Neolithic, the gloss being less pro-
nounced. Compare plate XIII.

Different Rates of Patination.
On a large specimen (5199), shaped like an elongat-
ed (small) turtle, the oldest chipped surface is partly
on a blue-gray and partly on a light-gray chert. The
light gray by long exposure has acquired a scale which
is cream-white and glossy, its thickness being quite
distinct. That portion of this fracture surface which
extends over the blue-gray chert is not glossy nor no-
ticeably patinated by decay or change of color. It has
acquired simply a dirty tinge by which it appears a
little lighter colored than a fresh fracture. Both these
have been broken by Early Neolithic chipping, and
the same Early Neolithic surface runs in the same
manner, from the light-colored chert to the blue-gray.
A similiar difference appears: that part of the Early
Neolithic surface which is on the light gray chert is
well glossed and is distinctly Early Neolithic, as I
have classified many specimens, but that part of the
Early Neolithic fracture which runs on to the blue-
gray chert is not perceptibly patinated in any way,
and might easily be called Early Neolithic, or even
Neolithic No. 2. (Page 104).

Erom this it is apparent not only that a blue-gray
chert requires much longer time to be altered so as to
acquire a patina, either of gloss or of alteration, but
also that Paleolithic specimens of blue-gray chert may
be so well preserved, even when favorably exposed for
patination. that they show no evidence of greater age
than Early Neolithic. These differences are of fre-

CHOICE OF TERMS. 103

quent occurrence, introducing another element to be
observed in judging the age of any specimen.

Early "Neolithic Preferable to Pre-Xeolithic.

July 29, 1912. Putnam, in a letter from S. Eliot.
Maine, suggests the term Early Neolithic instead of
Pre-Xeolithic, which presumes prior to Xeolithic. It
is a good suggestion, and his term can be applied to
those artifacts that show Xeolithic culture but are so
old as to be glossy. That would leave Xeolitliic still
for those not glossy but of Xeolithic culture. Then
the term Pre-Xeolithic can still be applied to those
glossy specimens which have Paleolithic culture, but
which still are not plainly Paleolithic in patination.
We would have then :

1. Pre-Paleolithic and Early Paleolithic, those hav-
ing a thick white or brown patina of alteration, with or
without a gloss, and with little to denote culture.
Some natural jointage or other old surfaces are Pre-
Paleolithic.

2. Paleolithic, those having less alteration patina
but usually a glossy surface. On the light chert a
glossy white scale of alteration is present and cotcm-
porary with a scant brown scale of alteration on the
blue-gray chert with little or no gloss. This embraces
those large rude leaves or turtles, which are abundant
and frequently broken so as to embrace but one-half,
and man}- irregularly shaped fragments that have an
edge, or two edges, which have been battered by use.
This is sometimes difficult to separate from the next.

3. Pre-Xeolithic, those having no noticeable alter-
ation patina but are glossy, with Paleolithic culture.

v..

104 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

4. Early Neolithic, those having- Neolithic culture
and a distinct gloss, without alteration patina.

At first these were classed together as Pre-Neo-
lithic.

5. Neolithic, having, with Neolithic culture, no pa-
tina of any kind ; also all polished or ground imple-
ments of Neolithic culture/"

I find that the stages of culture can hardly be as-
signed to definite Glacial epochs, so far as shown by
the Kansas specimens. It is possible to say now only
that the great change in culture exhibited between the
Pre-Neolithic (and Paleolithic) and the Early Neo-
lithic was probably incidental to the oncoming of the
Kansan Glacial epoch. The Early Neolithic seems to
extend from after the Kansas epoch to the post-Wis-
consin, apparently grading into the Neolithic culture.

August 24, 1912,

VI. WORK OF DR. W. ALLEN STURGE, OF
MILDENHALL, ENGLAND.

August 23, 1912. By mail I have received from Dr.
W. Allen Sturge, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, England, a
copy of Vol. 1, Part l'of'the "Proceedings of the Pre-
historic Society of East Anglia", published in 1911. It
contains the presidential address by Dr. Sturge, Octo-
ber 2G, 190S: "Flint implements of Sub-Crag Man",
by J. Reid Moir ; A report by a special committee to en-
quire into the question "whether the Sub-Crag imple-
ments had been chipped by natural or by human
agency" ; "The Chronology of the Stone Age", by Dr.

*Later it was found necessary to divide Early Neolithic
into No. 1 and No. 2, and the same is true of Neolithic arti-
facts.

V-

WORK OF DR. W. ALLEN STURGE. 105

Sturge; "Animistic forms in certain flints, showing
human work", by Col. W. Underwood, and Resumes of
business and scientific meetings, 190S to 1910.

Of these papers that which specially concerns Am-
erican archeologists is the "Chronology of the Stone
Age", by Dr. Sturge, pp. 43 to 105, read January 13
and March 22, 1909. The stone age, as well as the
Glacial geology with which it is intimately associated
in England, according to the author, is well represent-
ed in America, and as Glacial geology is also abund-
antly represented in America, it becomes a very per-
tinent inquiry whether the two are as intimately asso-
ciated in America as in England.

It affords the writer great satisfaction to know that
in many things — indeed in all essential results — Dr.
Sturge's investigations, so far as they run along lines
parallel to those of the foregoing chapters confirm the
writer's conclusions as to the intimate association of
man with the Ice-age, throughout its extent, from its
beginning to its end. The district in which Dr. Sturge
found his Glacial implements is near the morainic
border of glaciation, and has sometimes been water-
flooded and sometimes ice-covered, introducing a con-
fused succession of boulder-clays, brick clays and
gravels, some of the earlier deposits having been
pushed aside and over-run by later ice sheets. It
was the effect of some of the later ice sheets upon
some of the implements, which attracted attention.
The implements are "striated" in the same manner
as the hard rocks in the northern part of Minnesota.
These striations were found to vary considerably. He
discriminates six classes and illustrates them by beau-

10G WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

tiful photo-plates. He correlates these classes with
differences of pa ti nation. Of patination he makes the
following remarks:

"A flint has been worked into some shape suitable
to his needs by a man at one period ; has been aban-
doned by him at his death, or when he has done with
it. It has lain on the ground for a sufficient length of
time to become more or less deeply patinated. At some
subsequent period it has been picked up by another
man who, though living at a time long posterior to
the first worker, is still in about the same stage of
civilization as this first man; aiid who works the flint
to suit his particular needs. The new work will be
quite unpatinated, as the patinated surface will be
partly removed by the process of chipping the flint
into the new shape. This second man will then aban-
don the implement in his turn, and it will again lie
on the ground exposed to patinating influences. When
picked up today by the collector, some thousands of
years after the last user has thrown it aside, the work
of the second period may or may not have undergone
surface change. But in any case the surface change
will be wholly different from that of the work of the
first man, and we see two well-defined series of sur-
faces on the same flint, the one on the facets due to
the older man's work and the other on the facets of the
later man's work. This applies both to Paleoliths and
to Xeoliths, though it is perhaps more common in the
case of the latter. A study of a large number of such
doubly patinated implements, in conjunction with a
study of an even larger number of singly patinated im-
plements, is of the greatest service in helping us to ar-

STRIATION, LUSTRE, IRON-MOULDING. 107

rive at a good working knowledge of the value of pa-
tina in relation to age." P. 48.

With the "striation" due to glaciation and the associ-
ated patination, the author unites lusti'C and "iron-
moulding" The former 'is the glossiness, and the lat-
ter the streaked distribution over the surface of some
artifacts, of limonite, both described by the writer in
the foregoing discussion of Kansas artifacts.

All these features, and the time involved in their
production, the author puts into "Neolithic" time. He
considers that Paleolithic time, while antecedent to
Neolithic, was composed of two great epochs, "Drift"
man and "Cave" man, of which the former was the
earlier. Back of Drift man was the age of the Boul-
der-clay, and earlier still, in the Pliocene, at the base
of the "Crag", flint implements showing glacial etch-
ing. The whole time involved in the production of
the successive Glacial epochs, and hence of the exist-
ence of man, he finds to accord with the Crollian hy-
pothesis, the lastest glaciations, or series of gla-
ciations, having occupied a period of time extend-
ing from 300,000 years ago to 100,000 years ago.
There was some "nine or ten recurrences of
glaciation, corresponding to the occurrence of
winter in or near the aphelion, with relaxations of
cold conditions in the intervals, during which winter
was in or near perihelion."

There are several important "conclusions" brought
out by Dr. Sturge to which attention should be spec-
ially directed, viz :

1. As regards the nomenclature of the successive
epochs of the Stone age, the author's distinction be-

108 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

tween Paleolithic and Neolithic is based on the acci-
dent of where the implement was found, — if on the sur-
face it is Neolithic, if in the gravels it is Paleolithic,
always presuming that the gravels were deposited
prior to the fabrication of any of the surface-found im-
plements. That, however, is very questionable. To
the writer it seems quite likely that many of the pat-
inated implements found on the surface, and especially
in the little fresh-cut gorges, or "side valleys" that de-
scend from the Elveden plateau, were originally em-
braced in gravel beds that form the sloping sides of
those little valleys, and that they have been brought
to light and concentrated by the erosive action that
formed the little valleys. In general, throughout the
region, this transformation of Paleoliths to Neoliths,
by change of pose through the action of surface dis-
turbance of the gravels, is likely to have taken place.
In that case many of the Neoliths described by the
author may be actually Paleoliths. In short, the ac-
cident of where the stone is discovered, whether in
gravels or not, is of no value whatever, unless con-
sidered in connection with its cultural characteristics
and its patination.

2. It will be noticed that in the term "Neolithic"
the author embraces what in the foregoing discussion
the writer has put in the Early Neolithic, and that he
includes in the term "Later Neolithic" essentially what
the writer has called Neolithic. It is probable that the
occurrence in Europe of a "Bronze age", which has
not been recognized in America, is to some extent re-

sponsibe for this discrepancy.

BOULDER CLAYS OF DIFFERENT DATES. 109

3. It will be noticed also that all of the characters
which by the writer are considered Paleolithic are in-
cluded by Dr. Sturge in his term Neolithic.

4. On the presumption that the operations of the
Glacial epoch, and epochs, would have been in Europe
much like the same in America, it seems remarkable
that the gravels produced by the tumultuous waters
should have been considered by Dr. Sturge of so much
later date than the boulder clay, or the boulder-clays.
In America it is a settled conclusion that each boulder-
clay had its cotemporary gravels and sands, and, at
lower levels when the waters were gathered in ponds
and lakes, had also its brick-clays. It is by the care-
ful and prolonged study of these, and especially of
their distribution and superposition, that in America
it is well established that there was a succession of
Glacial epochs. It was by the wash and destruction
of the boulder-clays by the discharged waters that
were deposited the gravels, sands and brick-clays.
Hence, in general, the boulder-clays are to be consid-
ered not as antedating the Glacial period, and so evi-
dence of glaciations earlier than what Dr. Sturge has
put in his "Neolithic", but as actually coeval with his
"Neolithic", some boulder clays being earlier than
others. Owing to the confusion which was introduced
in the drift by the successive glaciations, and especially
about the moraines, the unraveling of the dates of
any human artifacts found in it becomes a very com-
plicated problem in all places where different ice-sheets
have covered the country.

5. The characters of striation which Dr. Sturge
has found on numerous Neoliths, and has so minutely

110 WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

studied and described, he takes as evidence of succes-
sive glaciations of the country. To the writer this
seems to be unreliable evidence. An observer who
had never seen striation on the hard rocks of the
Archean, might suppose the depth of the striae, the
criss-crossing' of the fine striae, the confused polishing
striation on quartzose surfaces, could be attributed to
differences of pressure, and hence to successive sheets
of ice of different thickness. But it is not an uncom-
mon thing, in northern Minnesota, to find two or three,
perhaps all, of the different characters described by the
author, on the same rock surface, within the area of
a few hundred, or even a fewr scores, of feet, and plain-
ly due to a single glaciation. The hardness, the po-
sition and the movements of pebbles embraced in the
bottom of the ice all vary, as the movement proceeds.

6. The author's description of the valley of the
Lark where it crosses, at nearly right angles, the
"gravel-topped ridge" which makes Warren Hill, High
Lodge and other gravel deposits as far north as Maid's
Cross Hill near Lakenheath, is so minute and natural
that it warrants, perhaps, the presumption, on the part
of a stranger, that a different history from that given
by the author would fully apply to the facts he has
described, and would be in consonance with known
principles of Glacial geology. Briefly, the writer is
impressed with the similarity of the surface features
between Mildenhall and the Elveden plateau, to those
of many localities in America where, near the farthest
limit of the latest ice-sheet, streams of water were
numerous and turbulent, flowing irum the ice. Such
waters gathered in gorges in the ice, and in the same

(

. THE GREAT GRAVEL RIDGE A KAME. Ill

gorges, by surface wash and gravitation, was concen-
trated the drift which was on and in the ice. The
running stream carried away all it could carry, leaving
only the coarser parts of the drift in its bed. On the
complete disappearance of the ice-sheet the bed of
the former ice-bound river is marked by a ridge of ac-
cumulated gravel and sand and stones of all sizes,
which rises, in places, nearly as high as the adjoining
plateaux. This ridge is sometimes continuous for sev-
eral miles, but is frequently broken by little cross-
valleys such as those named "the valley'', ''the vale",
and "the gully", on Dr. Sturge's "map of the vicinity
of Icklingham". It is quite reasonable to suppose,
therefore, that the great gravel ridge mentioned, on
which so many human stone artifacts have been found,
is of the nature of a kamc formed not far back from
the margin of a great ice-sheet, in the bed of a rapid
river wrhich flowed southwardly from the ice-field of
one of the great glaciations, such ice-field extending
toward the north an unknown distance. The fact of
the existence of disrupted, brick-clay and of till
mingled sporadically with the gravels of the ridge, is
very interesting, and as the clay contains Mousterian
artifacts there must have been an earlier period of
quiet and non-glaciation when the country about Mil-
denhall was habitable, or at least a spot where brick-
clay could be gathered and could receive occasional
human contributions of stone implements ; though it
is entirely conceivable that such brick-clay did not
much antedate the epoch of its disruption. During
the time of the formation of this great gravel deposit,
composing the "kame", if this explanation be correct,

112 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

the drainage was southward, and it would be likely
that enormous areas of "overwash" sand and gravel
would be found in the country lying to the south and
southeastward from Mildenhall.

7. In the opinion of the wrriter there is no way to
separate the Paleolithic age into two successive parts,
such as the drift and the cave. But on a geographic
basis there might be a Drift paleolitliic man in north-
ern latitudes where glacial streams formed copious
gravel deposits in their bottoms which later by gen-
eral desiccation of the country became terraces, and
a Cave man in southern latitudes where Glaciation did
not occur, or even in Glacial latitudes where habitable
caves escaped the course of the glaciers. But obvious-
ly, the Drift man was cotemporary with the Cave man,
at least with the later part of the Cave man period.
In general, therefore, the man of the caves had a longer
dynasty than he of the terraces, and such dynasty
probably extends back further than any recognized
glaciation. It may have been during some inter-glacial
epoch that the Cave man of Le Moustier occupied the
region of Suffolk and dropped his implements into
some quiet waters The facts described by the author
pertaining to the Warren Hill locality obviously show
the following:

(1) The Mousterian age, in Suffolk, showing in-
terlaminations of till with brick-clay which contains
humanly shaped implements, must have been nearly
cotemporary there with a general glaciation.

(2) The deposits were thrown out of horizontality
by a later ice-sheet.

V-

CLASSIFICATION BY CULTURE STAGES. 113

(3) The later ice-sheet furnished the gravel of
Warren Hill and of High Lodge.

(4) The Mousterian Cave man of Mentone was co-
temporary with a Mousterian Drift man in Suffolk.

Still, notwithstanding these critical objections to
some of the conclusions of Dr. Sturgc, which seem to
show the necessity of extensive remodeling of his
chronology of the stone age, it is to be admitted that
archeologists are much indebted to him for his
critical discussion. British archeologists, as well as
American, will be spurred to a vigorous study of pat-
ination, and to a closer search for implements in gravel
pits and terraces. Whether finally the succession of
events will be found to coincide with the theory of
Croll it is too early to predict.

VII. CLASSIFICATION OF KANSAS ARTI-
FACTS BY CULTURE STAGES.

The Simplest Artifact an Edged Tool.

It is plain, from a careful inspection of the Kansas
artifacts, that the simplest culture of aboriginal man
was sufficient to produce only an edge. In many cases
he used pieces of an irregular shape on which there
happened to exist, in whole or in part by his agency,
an edge which could be made to serve his purpose.
He may at first have found, ready to his hand, some
nature-fractured pieces. From these, either by acci-
dent or design, new edged pieces were broken off, and
he found that by very little effort he could produce
others. Some of those which he produced are coarsely
chipped, and large, and have but little to indicate any
design as to shape ; but he certainly acquired the skill

114 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

and the habit of giving his simplest implements some
conventional shapes. Those which are called "leaves"
or "blades' or "turtles", having a general ovate or
ovate-oblong outline, and a longer dimension of about
four or five inches are common. But the sizes extend
from a length of ten inches, illustrated by specimen
numbered 5206 (page 12), and a width of six and
three-fourths inches, down to less than two inches in
length.

Others were left more nearly in the shape that the
natural fractures gave them, with the addition of some
marginal trimming, and this gave rise to a large series
that are squarish and also to those that are polygonal
and some that are celtoid. These indeed probably
antedated the ovates, but they must have continued
side by side for a long period.

Implements of these shapes date from Paleolithic
time, as shown by their patination, but they do not
cease with Paleolithic time. The same idea is ex-
pressed in implements of later date, and even Xeolithic
time. It may be that the so-called Neolithic "blanks",
found in great numbers in caches in Ohio and other
states, embody the primal idea of the Paleoliths of the
ovate and ovate-oblong shapes. It is not alone by
the patination that the Paleolithic specimen is dis-
tinguished ; but, along with the oldest patination, the
completeness of the implement according to the puropse
of the fabricator is shown by the fact that nearly all of
them have been dulled in Paleolithic time along their
edges by use in the hand of their owners, such dulling
also being patinated.

KINDS OF KNIVES. 115

Knives.

The use of ovate, or squarish, edged tools seems to
have provoked the trimming of their outlines into a
more elongated tool, to' which the term knife has uni-
formly been applied. These knives were about eight
inches in length and about an inch and a quarter, or
somewhat more, in width. They are essentially the
same that by Mr. Brower was called "Ouivira knife''.
For the most part they are not sufficiently patinated
to be placed unequivocally with Paleolithic culture,
only one having been found -(p. 90) which certainly
dates from the same age as the foregoing, and that one
is not a well-shaped implement. All the rest, so far
as observed, fall into a later stage. They are about
parallel-edged, well chipped, well shaped, with a slight
curvature, and one end a little narrower than the other,
but both ends terminating rectangularly, (or approxi-
mately so) and in nearly all cases have a distinct
glossiness but no patina of alteration. Many were
broken and we have the parts.

This Early Neolithic Ouivira knife was the complet-
ed instrument, but the term "knife" has to be applied
to a number of (Paleolithic) implements which were
chipped only coarsely, the general shape of which
would allow of their being called lance-ovate or lance-
oblong. These are sometimes eight or nine inches in
length. They show edges battered by use, and could
have been used only for purposes identical with the
purpose of the perfected tool, i. e., for some coarse
cutting or hacking. These have been put into Early
Neolithic No. 1. The shape varies still further, one

11G

WEATHERING" OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

end being left rough and large, as if it furnished a
more convenient hand-grasp, thus grading into the
gouge. With still further variation in shape the ends,
(one or both) were dressed to a point more or less ob-
tuse, and also more or less acute, the latter making
an instrument which must have been in constant de-
mand, either about the camp or in the capture of game
by hand. These nicer forms (like the Ouivira knife)
are Early Xeolithic Xo. 1 and Neolithic No. 2.

But the term knife must be given a still wider appli-
cation. Indeed it is applicable not only to numerous
almost shapeless implements which plainly have been
used for simple cutting with a single hand-stroke, but
to others that are well-trimmed and shaped but whose
shapes are not always such as to cause them to be
classed as knives. This includes many that have been
called spears or arrow-points. Their use as knives
is shown by their battered edges, and might be inferred
from their size which sometimes plainly precludes
them from the category of spear or arrowpoint. Some
knives are short, and evidently derived from scrapers
by trimming their edges, and some are single, simple
flakes which have not been trimmed at all. The great
majority of these more variant forms are found to fall
into Early Neolithic time, but they were continued in
Neolithic, and to the very latest of American stone-
cutting.

The "Harahey knife" is a special type which devel-
oped in Early Neolithic time. It has four mono-bev-
eled edges, one-half of the knife being alternatively
beveled in the direction contrary to the bevels on the
other half, the general outline being diamond shaped.

GOUGES. 117

In some cases only one-half of the knife was thus
mono-beveled, and occasionally only one-fourth or
three-fourths. Such lozenge-shaped knives manifest a
high degree of skill and workmanship and it can hardly
be doubted that normally they would have continued
into Neolithic time. v. plate XVIII.

Gouges.

It is plain that any stone, with any kind of a pro-
jecting angle, could have been employed as a gouge,
and such gouge might grade into a rough drill. Some
such are shown on plate VI.. They began in Paleo-
lithic time, in their simplest form. Some such have
distinctly pointed, or beak-like terminations, with but
little effort manifest to dress the larger end further

than to reduce it to convenient size for the hand. It
is impossible for modern man to conceive of the uses
to which the aborigine could have put such a crude
tool, but modern man cannot question its existence
and its usefulness to its owner. The most recent of
stone gouges are concavo-convex and show by their
form the purpose for which they are made, and along
with their higher culture' they express an improvement
in the grade of work which they are designed to per-
form, commensurate with the differences which dis-
tinguish Xeolithic man from Paleolithic. So far as
the Kansas specimens convey any idea of the simplicity
of the wants of Paleolith man, they would allow us to
suppose that the first stone gouge, as well as the pri-
meval stone knife, and the first sharp edge used by
him, were nature-formed, due to such jointing and
separating under the influence of moisture, heat and

118 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

cold, as are well-known effects on long-weathered
chert. Such knives he occasionally found on the
slopes where a chert bed had an outcrop exposed to
the elements. It was by use that he learned that new
edges were formed equal in sharpness to the old ones.
(A practiced eye can easily distinguish the natural
fractures from the artificial.) It must have required,
however, no very long pcriol of time for primeval man
to discover that by chipping a stone he could form
edges and points far superior to those which he found
ready-made.

Scrapers.

When aboriginal man began to chip stone so as to
improve on nature-formed pieces, he found that his
chips themselves constituted useful implements.
They had sharp edges as well as points. Some simple
chips were used as knives without further fashioning.
They were also the first scrapers ; but the conventional
scraper was the result of some want not before felt
and it came into use in Neolithic time, apparently in
Early Xeolithic. They never have the Paleolithic
patina of alteration in any form. They were made
from those flakes or chips which were struck off by
a single blow of the hammer-stone, having a curving
outer surface and an inner surface less curved, or
nearly straight. The ictus-bulb is usually preserved
at the smaller end of the less-curving fracture-surface.
The smaller end is also thinner than the larger (with
very few exceptons) and rarely shows any secondary
chipping. But the larger end is extensively re-
chipped, the chips all having been taken in the same

SCRAFERS. 119

direction so as not to affect the less-curving fracture-
surface, but so as to run out on the outer (older)
surface. This repeated chipping" about the end gives
the flake a mono-bevel at that end and maintains an
edge which lies constantly in the less-curving surface
of the flake.

Such scrapers occur in great numbers in the col-
lection. In size they vary from three-quarters of an
inch in length to about three and a half inches, by far
the larger number being about two and a half inches
long. There are, however, nine specimens (5531)
which vary remarkably from" the normal. Their
length is about six inches. They are not so notice-
ably mono-beveled at the larger end but are more
uniformly chipped all round, the flaking along oppo-
site edges intersecting along the center of the older
(convex) surface so as to form a more or less continu-
ous ridge or keel. These edges have been dulled by
use. The demand for such scrapers, if they were used
for dressing hides, may indicate the existence of the
buffalo at the time they appear. They are classed,
according to their patination, as both Early Neolithic
and Neolithic No. 2.

Occasionally a scraper is found which is mono-
beveled at both ends, and also one that has the sides
(edges) nearly parallel. There are also implements
which approach near the scraper in size and form,
which were not made from single flakes, but have been
re-chipped in all directions so as to reduce them to
their present outlines. Indeed, abnormal forms occur
in all the classes, and, as na s often been remarked,
the classes run together so that sometimes it is im-

V-

120 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

possible to assign individual specimens to any class
without some qualification.

Tomahawks.

The origin of the tomahawk (5197, plate XIII) must
have been about coeval (though perhaps a little earl-
ier) with that of the scraper, — i. e., in Early Neolithic
time. The implement here referred to is quite nu-
merous in the collection. Its most usual (and hence
the normal) form is what will here be considered. A
flattish piece of chert was chosen having a length of
about four and a half inches. . The thickness was less
than an inch and its width about two inches. One
end was frequently a little wider than the other, and
likewise a little thinner. With this piece the toma-
hawk was made by chipping about the wider end so
as to produce a rough central edge. The narrow end
being left almost in a natural state, and usually quite
rough and coarse. In addition, two broad depressions,
or notches, were formed, one on each lateral edge, by
chipping into the outline more deeply at points about
opposite to each other. These shallow depressions
were made usually not 'at the center of the lateral
edges, but at about two-thirds of the distance between
the extremities, and nearer the non-edged end of the
implement. Such notches, or indentations in the out-
lirie, suggest the idea that the implement had been
wrapped in a wooden or rawhide withe and had been
wielded with a handle somewhat in the manner of the
modern war-club.

Variations from this normal type consist of : larger
size, reaching more than six inches in length and a

. v.

TOMAHAWKS. 121

corresponding width ; both ends edged* ; the width not
much greater than the thickness ; the lateral notches or
indentations very slight, or even wholly imperceptible ;
the lateral notches not opposite each other. The
tomahawk represented on plate VI (5219) is a variant
form, smaller than the type.

This form of tomahawk seems to have continued in-
to Neolithic time, — i. e. post-Wisconsin — judging «by
the occurrence of specimens whose chipped surfaces
show no glossiness. It may have been hence the pro-
genitor of the modern war-club. Still, its form is so
different from that of the modern withed war-club
that there is room to suppose that its purpose is not
yet understood. If it were withed by the aborigine
it would have formed an effective and dangerous
weapon, either in the chase of the large beasts with
which he was cotemporary or in war against his hu-
man enemies.

Leaves or Blades.

Allusion has already been made (p. Ill and plate

VII) to Paleolithic leaves, blades and turtles, but in

Early Neolithic and Neolithic time these became more

finely chipped and more ornate as to form, and more

nearly representing the implements which at present

in most collections are thus named. One such may

be seen photographed in plate Nil (No. 5556), and

another (No. 5135) in plate XIII. The use of these

implements is problematic. They could serve as

knives when their edges were thin enough, as well as

*Moorhead, in "The Stone Age in North America" has
illustrated snme tomahawks, saying that they are found fre-
quently west of the Mississippi, in Nebraska. Missouri. Ar-
kansas and Iowa. Op. Cit. IT, 1S8.

V-

122 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

scrapers. There is reason to suppose that they were
useful in so many ways that for the hunter, as well
as for the squaw who remained most of the time at
the camp, they were consequently in demand and per-
haps were carried as vade mecums as faithfully as a
civilized man carries his pocket knife. It is notice-
able that some of them have been worn away by use
on the edge at the larger end, as exhibited by the pho-
tograph seen on plate XIII.

As with other implements, the "blades" were subject
to great variation, becoming nearly circular (5802)
especially the Paleolithic, or elongated, with sub-equal
extremities (5110), and also grading into pointed celts.
(5115 of plate IX). They are sometimes thick and
rough ; and their earliest types are exhibited by Nos.
57G5 and 5231 of plates XII, as well as by several oth-
ers shown on plates VII and VIII.

Celts.

The earliest, at least the roughest, identifiable celt
(5T92) differs widely from the typical form. It is an
implement about seven inches long, originally em-
braced between natural jointage planes, on three
sides, and on the other apparently chipped off so as to
approach a Paleolithic edge, tapering roughly to a
blunt point. The butt end is terminated also by a
straight jointage plane approximately at right angles
to the others. This does not date back to Paleolithic
time. Its latest worked surfaces show little or no
glossiness. It is composed of dark gray chert, a kind
which does not take a gloss nor a weather-scale easily.
Its surface carries a scattering deposit of limonite

(

V-

CELTS. 123

("iron-mold" of Sturge), which may be considered an
indication of considerable age (V. p. 107). At the most
this specimen can be referred to Early Neolithic time.

Its culture would take it back farther than that but
its comparative freedom from weathering and patina-
tion requires that it be put into Neolithic or Early
Neolithic time.

From this rough form of celt, which may be con-
sidered, perhaps, only a small form of those represent-
ed in plates III and IV, (5212 and 5213), there are so
many stages of alteration that they cannot be illus-
trated, nor even noted. There was an easy gradation,
as to size and form (v. 5868) from the foregoing
to the Neolithic type, i. e., to the polished celt, or un-
grooved stone hatchet, or ax. There are some which
seem to be allied to the tomahawk, already described.
Others appear to verge toward the Made and others
toward a pointed knife (5S67). There are none that
certainly ante-date the Kansan ice age, but there are
many that show by their patination that they are not
much younger. The celt idea, therefore, was one of
the primitive concepts of aboriginal stone art, and it
finally resulted in the Neolithic polished celt and the
grooved-ax celt.'

On plate NYIII is shown a celt from Kansas (5715)
which closely resembles the Paleolithic found some
years ago at Newcomerstown, Ohio, by Prof. W. C.
Mills to which attention has been called widely by Dr.
G. F. Wright. That was from a gravel pit supposedly
of the Wisconsin Glacial age. This was found at or
near the surface, beyond the morainic limit of the Kan-
san Ice age. This has dates of four chippings, as

124 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

evinced by differences of patination, viz.: (1) Pre-pale-
olithic or Early Paleolithic, having- a thick, white
weather-scale and perhaps not artificial, seen only on
one side; (2) Early Paleolithic, having- a brown, glossy
weather-scale, less thick than the last and certainly
artificial, showing" the wavy undulations of chip-frac-
ture ; (3) a thin white weather-scale, perhaps a rem-
nant of (1) where (1) has been roughly chipped away,
appears only on one edge. It may be Paleolithic, how-
ever; (4) highly glossy Early Neolithic surface cover-
ing the most of the specimen, ornamented by wavy
concentric undulations. This specimen is of dense
blue-gray chert. It shows the effect of considerable
use at the broader end and along both lateral edges.

5052 (of plate XIII) represents a handsome smaller
chipped celt of Neolithic date, slightly dulled at the
broader end and along the long edges. It is of dark
blue-gray chert and free from weathering effects. Be-
tween this and that first mentioned (5792) is a wide
gap, but it is filled by examples which by slight vari-
ations show, the lineal descent of one from the other.

The purpose of the celt which dates from Early
Neolithic time was not that of the Neolithic celt, which
is sometimes given the name ungroovcd ax. It shows
no evidence of having been used as an ax or hammer.
It is never grooved, nor notched, as if it had been at-
tached to a haft or handle. It is usually not battered
by use at either end, and if so battered at all it appears
to have been accidental, or subsidiary to that which
is seen on the long edges. The long edges are some-
times so rounded by use that all semblance of an
"edge" is lost. It is on such specimens that can be

THE \V

PLATE XVIII

( ' : - ■-

'if'

fW8

"2 sr.?. ; •

*:\ .-. > It

X. v

§4sg / ft ^

1
-

CELT show ing three weather DATES. PAGE 123.

V-

BXTREMES OF CULTURE. 125

seen a little battering at the ends. The use of such
celts seems to have been more like that of a knife,
although still it may have been more like repeated
light blows than like strokes of a knife.

Explanation of Plate XII.

This plate shows the extremes of culture, evinced
not only by the differences of patination but by the dif-
ferent types of implements. 1 he specimens illustrated
are from the Kansas valley, and chiefly from the vi-
cinity of Alma, in the Mill Creek valley, one of the
tributaries of the Kansas river.

The oldest artificial surfaces are seen on Xo. 5765
and No. 5231. The former is specially valuable as a
demonstration of two dates of chipping on the same
specimen, both of them so old as to have acquired
a patination. The older patination almost surrounds
the piece, showing that it had about the same size and
form in Paleolithic time as at present. At certain
points this patination, which is a dirty-brown (or
drab) and glossy scale, covers the edge on opposite
sides, and on one side the edge was worn as by use
in Paleolithic time, (at X). These old surfaces con-
trast strongly with the later surfaces which indicate,
not only by the type of the specimen but also by the
glossiness, that they were formed in Early Neolithic
time. Taken alone, in all its features, this specimen
indicates that the purpose of the later chipping was
almost identical with that of the earlier, and that the
art of the later fabricator was not much in advance of
that of the earlier.

126 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

No. 5231 is a large irregular implement made from
a slab of light-gray chert. Its earliest chipped sur-
faces are marked Paleolithic, and its later Pre-Neo-
lithic. The contrast between the surfaces of different
dates is not so great as in the last, but sufficiently
marked to warrant the designations given. This
specimen is somewhat dulled with use at two points
on the edge. One is at the top, and is not shown be-
cause the chips and the battering are too much on
the other side. The other is at the extreme left, and
can be seen in the photograph. The thickness of the
weather-scale that covers the' Paleolithic surfaces is
seen distinctly along the dotted line. It is white, and
about as thick as card-paper.

No. 5577, a bi-pointed, gibbous knife of blue-grey
chert, covered by a dull gloss. This gloss, as well as
the higher art manifested, denotes a length of time
between the making of the two specimens already men-
tioned and the making of this, which was sufficient
for the introduction of an entirely new people. It is
believed that the Kansan ice epoch separated them.
The term Early Neolithic is applicable, therefore,
both from the Glacial date and by the state of culture
exhibited.

No. 5290 represents a typical scraper of Early Neo-
lithic date, mono-beveled at one end, dulled along the
long edges and especially at the broad end by use in
the left hand of the owner. This type of implement
continued into Neolithic time.

No. 555G. A perfect ovate-oval Made, which shows
two dates of chipping. Early Neolithic and Neolithic,
and at the point and at the lower right hand, a part of

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE XII.

EXTREMES OF CULTURE. PAGE 125.

PLATE XIII. 127

a Pre-paleolithic weather scale which has a white color
and a thickness of one-sixteenth part of an inch.

No. 5450. A Neolithic arrow point with a stout
tapering tang, having no gloss and no weather scale,
of blue-gray chert.

Explanation of Plate XIII.

Specimens from the Kansas valley. Actual size.
(See pp. 115-125).

No. 5135. Leaf, ovate, thin, worn away at the larg-
er end by use, gray chert, Early Neolithic.

No. 5802. Circular leaf, roughly finished ; has a
dull gloss, but no weather scale ; slightly limonated ;
perhaps Early Neolithic, mottled with gray and dark
blue-gray.

No. 5110. Short knife, or leaf, or scraper, chipped
to form on all sides, a variant of the typical scraper.
Compare Nos. 5222, 5223 and 5225, of plate VI, and
pp. 18 and 19.

No. 5197. Typical tomahawk of the "tomahawk
people". The entire edge is chipped from the base up,
and shows but little damage- by use. The surface is
streaked with limonite on the side photographed (pa-
tina (g), p. 11). and that side has less weather patina-
tion than the other ; Early Neolithic.

No. 5715. Celt, showing four dates of working, de-
scribed on page 107.

No. 5052. Handsome chipped celt of Neolithic date.
This consists entirely of drak blue-gray chert, and
hence may have a greater age than its fresh appearance
denotes.

12S WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Xo. 5G24. "Harahey knife", mono-beveled three-
fourths. That part not mono-beveled is marked X.
This sample is smaller than the average. It shows
the patinae (b), (d) and (g), the former two only on
the reverse side. In "the immediate vicinity are five
empty square cavities indicating that the patina (g)
may have been derived from the oxidation of pyrite.
The emptied square cavities were then rilled in part
by the black substance which forms patina (d).

Xo. 562G. A well-glossed, perfect "Harahey knife",
of dense, mottled, pink and dirty-white chert, prob-
ably dating from (late) Early Neolithic time, a little
smaller than the typical size.

Points. Neolithic No. 1.

The points show some interesting features. It has
been intimated already at several places in the course
of the investigation of the Kansas artifacts that not
only was there a notable change in the skill evinced
by the specimens in passing from the Paleolithic to
Earlv Neolithic, but that the Earlv Neolithic culture
grades into Neolithic. It has also been stated that
the large majority of. all the specimens are of the
Early Neolithic stage, as evinced by the shiny gloss
that covers them, and that comparatively few are of
Neolithic date. It has al^o been stated that the Early
Xeolithic specimens belong apparently at different
dates between the Kansan and the Wisconsin ice-
epochs. It remains now to call attention to a group
of points which differ from the Early Neolithic points

in several important respects:

1. They show but little glossiness — as a rule they
are free from gloss and distinctly Neolithic.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE XIII.

PALEOLITHIC AND EARLY NEOLITHIC NOS. 1 AND 2. PAGE 127.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE XIV.

POINTS. 129

2. They have a coarse chipping, almost recalling"
Paleolithic art, and they are usually larger and thicker
than the glossy Early Neolithic type (No. 2).

3. They are quite numerous in the collection, be-
tween forty and fifty, and as a group present a striking
contrast with the Early Neolithic (No. 2) points,
which are not only glossy and thin, but of delicate
shapes and sizes, as well as finely chipped.

These two classes are shown on plate XIV.

If we may depend upon the criterion which has been
followed hitherto in the investigation, (the different
weather effects J these coarser points indicate a late
intrusion of coarser culture into the area of the Early
Neolithic culture, or else a succession of a people of
coarser culture upon the spots that for a long time had
been the habitat of a higher (Early Neolithic No. 2)
culture. There are several considerations, based on
the specimens, which rather indicate the latter of these
alternatives : (a) The sudden appearance of the fresh
points, (b) The non-discovery, or at least the com-
parative absence of points of Early Neolithic No. 2
culture that show the freshness of these of coarser
culture. There are a few points (only fourteen so far
as the collection has been examined) which have been
classed as Neolithic which show the Early Neolithic
culture and delicate trimming, but ten of these are
only fragments and two are variants which have uncer-
tain relations. Practically the points knives and scrap-
ers of Early Neolithic No. 2 beauty of form and finish
ceased in Kansas with the introduction of this coarser
type. Several of those objects, shown on plate NI are
manifestly contemporary products of this new culture.

: v.

130 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

There is reason to believe that the so-called Paleo-
lithic '"blanks" and probably the Paleolithic types of
leaves and knives or blades which, in Kansas, show
the freshness which certainly separates them from
Paleolithic time, as already discussed on p. — , can be
referred, in large measures, if not wholly, to the people
that introduced these coarse points.

This change from Early Neolithic culture Xo. 2 to
what may be called, at present, the real Neolithic (or
Neolithic No. 1) is so marked that the event must be
considered one of first rank in the history of the Amer-
ican aborigine, and its cause must be looked for
amongst those of first rank.* Every archeologist, as
well as every geologist, will revert at once to the
agency of the Wisconsin Glacial epoch, as the prime
cause of this change. Whether these coarser artifacts
were produced while the Wisconsin epoch prevailed,
and by a people who may (in that case) have re-
sembled the Esquimo, or were introduced after the re-
cession of the Wisconsin glaciers, is an interesting
inquiry, but one which at present it is perhaps too
early to attempt to answer. Future investigations will
probably throw light on it.

The idea presented above, based on a consideration

of the points, to the effect that the Early Neolithic

culture No. 2 was expelled on the. introduction of the

coarser points is not borne out by an examination of
the leaves and knives; but it seems more probable
that the former of the alternatives mentioned on p. 129
was the actual condition on the introduction of the
coarser artifacts. That is, it seems that a people of
more rude skill in stone-chipping was co-temporary,

*The intrusive culture is illustrated by plate XIX.

THE WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS. MINN. HIST. SOC.

PLATE XIX.

INTRUSIVE — NEOLITHIC NO. 1. PAGE 130.

INTRUSIVE CULTURE, 131

at least for a time, with those who fabricated the
nicer implements. The facts seem to warrant this
conclusion, since amongst the knives and blades of
Early Neolithic No. 2 culture are fourteen thin, finely
chipped blades that are so fresh that they certainly
belong in the Neolithic group, as to date. These may
not have been made exactly cotemporary with the
coarser implements (Neolithic No. 1) ; but they may
have preceded or followed them, in the Kansas valley,
by several hundred years. If the intrusive coarser cul-
ture in the Kansas valley was in any way connected
with the Wisconsin ice epoch, and if the rest of the
country toward the south were still inhabited by the
people of Early Neolithic No. 2 culture, there could
not have been a long-continued occupation of the Kan-
sas valley by the intruders ; but in turn, on the ameli-
oration of the climatic conditions, the southern people
would necessarily have resumed possession of the
chert beds as the intruders retired toward the north.
The chert of these nice thin blades is of the same
quality as that of the coarse points.

Explanation- of Plate XIT.

Early Neolithic No. 2 and Neolithic No. 1 from the
Kansas Valley, actual size, illustrating the intrusive
culture (see also plate XIX).

No. 5475. Point with a broad square tang, Early
Neolithic.

No. 5447. Point with a tapering stout tang. Early
Neolithic.

No. 542?. Point with a stout, eared tang. Early
Neolithic.

132 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Xo. 5159, Point or knife with a short, edged tang.
Early Neolithic.

Xo. 5655. Point or knife with a broad, edged tang.
Early Neolithic.

Xo. 5421. Point, broad, barbed, having a tang with
a concave edged base. Early Neolithic.

The foregoing are thin, finely chipped, and glossy
with age.

No. 5057, Point, thick, rough, with a stout broad
tang, which has a convex, edged base. Neolithic No.
1.

No. 5085. Similar to the last, but having a narrow
tang. Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5055. Point, narrow, notched like the next but
having a tang narrower than the body. Neolithic No.
1.

No. 5055. Point, with broad stout tang, that is sep-
arated from the body of the implement only by broad,
shallow emarginations, edges dulled, apparently by
use. Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5082. Point, tangless, base edged and slightly
concave. Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5087. Point, thick, coarse, tang edged. Neo-
lithic No. 1.

No. 5070. Point, triangular, coarse, base concave.
Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5082. Point, triangular, base nearly straight.
Neolithic No. 1.

No. 5061. Point, or drill, base of broad tang con-
cave. Neolithic No. 1.

No 542-1. Bi-pointed point, small, ends blunt. Neo-
lithic No. 1.

THE KANSAS VALLEY. 133

VIII. AN ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNOIS-

SANCE.

The writer spent the month of May, 1012, in an
archeological reconnoissance which extended through
Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio and Wisconsin.
About one-half of the month was occupied with an ex-
amination of the valley of the Kansas river as far west-
ward as McPherson county, the purpose being to as-
certain the relation of the artifacts to any terraces
which might accompany that stream or any of its
tributaries, and thus to get a guide as to the relation
of the artifacts to the successive ice-epochs. The re-
mainder of the month was devoted to an examination
of archeological collections at Topeka, Kansas City,
St. Louis, Cincinnati, Columbus, Flint Ridge, Cleve-
land, Chicago. Milwaukee and Madison, with a view
to learn whether those collections contained any of
American paleolithic date. The following notes con-
tain the results of this trip so far as they have archeo-
logical import. The writer was accompanied and
guided at different places by Prof. J. E. Todd, of Law-
rence, Judge J. T. Keagy, of Alma, and Air. B. B.
Smyth of Topeka, and desires to thank them for their
cordial assistance.

THE KANSAS VALLEY.

Elevations in the Kansas Valley.

The following list of elevations is from Henry Gan-
nett's Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey,
giving railroad elevations in the United States. The
figures expressing elevations above the sea level seen
on the various depot buildings of the Union Pacific

134 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

railroad are quite different from and usually lower
than Gannett's, sometimes more than fifty feet.

Feet Above
Authority. Sea Level.

Ab'lene U. P. Station 1154

Alma Chicago, R. I. & Pac. 1061

Alta Vista U. P. R. R 1432

x\ssaria U. P. R. R 1277

Belvue U. P. Station 959

Beverly U. P. Station 1326

Blaine U. P. Station 1505

Blue Rapids U. P. Station 1105

Chapman U. P. Station 1113

Cow Creek U. P. Station 1606

Detroit U. P. Station 1135

Dwight C. R. I. R. R 1500

Emporia Junction A. T. & S. F. R. R 1138

Enterprise A. T. & S. F. R. R 1137

Eureka Lake U. P. Station 1023

Fort Riley U. S. C. & G. >S 1064

Hanlon, Neb. U. P. R. R 1205

Harveyvilie A. T. & S. F. R. R 1113

Herrington C. R. I. & P. R. R 1328

Junction City U. P. R. R 1078

Kansas City U. P. R. R 760

Kansas Falls U. P. R. R 1090

Lawrence U. P. R. R 828

Lindsborg U. P. R. R 1241

Manhattan U. P. R. R 1012

Marysville A. T. & S. F. R. R 1497

McPherson A. T. & S F. R. R ....1497

Minneapolis U. P. R. R 1255

New Cambria U.* P." R. R 1098

Ogdensburg Sta. U. P. R. R 1044

Randolph U. P. R. R 1052

Ramona C. R. I. & P. R. R .'...1436

Republic M. P. R. R 1495

Salina U. P. R. R 1226

Smoky Hill Buttes V. S. S 1580

Solomon U. P. Sta 1171

Stockdale U. P. R. R 1029

Topeka U. P. R. R 880

Wabaunsee A. T. S. F. R. R 1020

Wamego U. P. Sta 898

Waverly A. T. & S. F 1127

White City C. R. I. & P. R. R 1469

Zeandale C. R. I. & P. R. R 997

THE RIG BLUE VALLEY.

135

The Big Blue Valley. Descending the valley of the
Big Blue river it was noted that at YYymore the town
is located on a flat lying between Indian creek and the
Big Blue river and rising about 50 feet above the creek.
But the town also ascends to an upland which is about
25 or 30 feet higher toward the west. This upland is
also apparent along the southeast side of Indian creek.
The whole upland (and flat) is covered with a loess
without any stones. This terrace-like flat is originally
due to the Kansan drainage. Since the loess was de-
posited the Big Blue river has cut into it. The terrace
contains much gravel and sand, and serves as a reser-
voir that affords the water supply of Wymore. The
Burlington Depot, at Wymore, is fifteen to eighteen
feet below the top of this terrace.

A similar terrace accompanies the Big Blue below
Blue Springs to Barneston, and to Oketo which is ap-
parently on a lower terrace, and to Marietta. Marys-
ville is on a lower terrace, about 40 feet below the up-
land at the East. Below Marysville this lower terrace
abuts upon the strike of the rock which rises about 15
feet still higher. Randolph is on a cultivated high
flood plain.

Manhattan. On the south side of the river the rock
cliffs rise more or less abruptly from the river or from
the flood plain, with no distinct remains of any "second
bench", or terrace, for several miles in both directions.
But on the north side is an evident and extended up-
per bench, embraced within the outer rock hills. The
situation is as below :

^3 i or?

13G WEATHER I XG OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Xo. 1 is the upland, perhaps 150 to 250 above the
river, composed of limestone and shaly strata, giving
a rolling topography on the south side of the valley,
with much stone in the soil, making a grazing country,
but seldom considered first class as farm land. Prob-
ably the residuum of decay of the Carboniferous. No
drift boulders seen.

Xo. 2 is a loam, or loess, terrace, on which the north
part of Manhattan stands.

Xo. 3 is a terrace about 15 feet lower than X'o. 2.
and on it is the Union Pacific depot. In 1903, the river
covered this terrace at a memorable flood, when the
Gillett house was approached by boats. The business
part of Manhattan is on this bench.

Xo. 4 is the immediate flood plain.

Xo. 5 is the present river.

The Agricultural College is on terrace (2) at the
northwest corner of Manhattan.

At a quarry near the top of the upland, north of
Manhattan, the light buff limestone and the shale con-
trast singularly with the maroon-colored stoneless,
sticky gumbo by which they are overlain. The shale
seems not to have affected the gumbo in any percept-
ible way though in immediate contact. The gumbo
was therefore transported to its present place. Indi-
cations of this gumbo were seen at several other
places, even in X~ebraska, near Holmesville. It covers
also the upper terrace (Xo, 2) at Manhattan, and is
evidently a great and important member of the super-
ficial deposits. So far as seen it is the oldest member,
but still at all places seen it may have been secondarily

WAMEGO AND ALMA. 137

redeposited by the drainage incident to the valley dur-
ing some part of its earlier history.

Wamego. Eastward from Wamego.on the north side
of the river, is an extended area of flat land, which ap-
pears to be the bottom land of the present river, as far
as St. Mary's, making fine farms. On entering within
the moraine at Wamego, the distant bluffs become
more distant and apparently lower, and the said plain
broader. The plain with only slight undulation- con-
tinues to Lawrence. The drifted country looks like
Minnesota in drift topography. Where, near Buck
creek, the line of moraine crosses from the south side
to the north side of the Kansas river, there can be seen
on the north side a series of very stony hills ranging
toward the northeast, and a little further southeast
are outcrops of apparently a sandrock in the low bluff,
a formation which must run below the great Carbonif-
erous limestone seen at Manhattan.

On the south side of the river, opposite Wamego,
is an emphatic and distinct terrace which rises above
the wide cultivated flood-plain about 30 feet. This
flood-plain was covered by water at the time of the
flood of 1903, as at Manhattan, and doubtless corre-
sponds here to that level. The Wamego railroad sta-
tion was not flooded, by six or eight feet. This upper
bench consists of a light red silt, or loess, but there
was no opportunity to examine its structure.

Alma. Many specimens have been collected in the
Anil creek valley, and especially from the neighbor-
hood of Alma. Xot only were the collections made by
Mr. F>rower augmented by Judge J. T. Keagy. of that
city, but through his guidance and later by his recent

V-

138 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

industry, a considerable addition has been made not
only to the knowledge of the region, but to the Mu-
seum of the Historical Society. The recent visit was
made in company with Prof. J. E. Todd, of Lawrence.

Judge Keagy's collection is installed in ''the mu-
seum," a building lately acquired by the city, of which
it forms the greater part of the exhibit. The speci-
mens are mainly of Early Neolithic date, but a fewr
are Paleolithic, while some show portions of pre-Pale-
olithic surfaces. There are small and elegant arrow
points, drills, many scrapers, "Harahey knives," spear
points (notched), and some* modern hammers and
mill-stones, also one polished celt. The museum also
contains the collection and books of the late E. A.
Kilian, of Alma. It was at this city, Oct. 29, 1901,
that was held the first meeting and the organization
of the Quivira Historical Society.

At one mile and a half north from Alma, on Hen-
drick creek, was found recently a locality rich in
Early Neolithic artifacts. We walked over the
plowed land but found only a few flint spalls. They
are on a loess plain, or terrace, about, twenty feet
above the creek. They are outside of the Kansas mo-
raine, and the date and cause of so copious a loess
along the valley are not apparent, but perhaps it is
due to the damming of the Mill creek by the Kansan
ice, the moraine of which lies about six miles to the
northeast from Hendrick creek at this place. It
would be in that case a part of the lacustrine plain left
by the Glacial Mill lake, so named by B. B. Smyth *

*Kansas Academy of Science, Twenty-ninth Annual Meet-
ing. 1897, p. 100.

CHIPS OF NATURAL DISINTEGRATION. 139

It was found, on visiting the place, that the site of
Paleolithic (or Early Neolithic) artifacts at one and
three-quarters miles southwest from Alta Vista had
no relation to any terrace., It is in a valley of a small
creek, but, aside from a variable present flood-plain,
the creek has no evidence of any constant higher
stage, -and the site appears to have been on one of
the higher remnants of this shifting flood-plain. The
valley has rock bluffs that are some distance back,
and rise about 75 feet above the creek. Chert frag-
ments are abundant, occasionally blue, but mainly
long-weathered and brown or buff* yellow. Both
kinds show signs of artificial chipping rarely. It is
also apparent that the chert chips formed by natural
disintegration take conchoidal surfaces and have been
accumulated under the action of ancient pre-Glacial
drainage, locally along stream valleys, as seen abund-
antly at Alma, at levels at which now no stream can
reach, thus capping remnants of old rock terraces or
of alluvial flood-plains that may date from any Early
Glacial or even pre-Glacial epoch. Such gravel of old
chert at Alma is seen to reach the thickness of four
feet.

Junction City. The descent from the flat on which
the business center stands (Bardell House) is not
abrupt but irregular and. gentle. Indeed this flat is
itself -somewhat undulating. The lowest cultivated
flat of the Republican river is about 8 feet above the
river, and about 8 feet below the depot flat.

Profile Section of the Valley at Junction City.

140 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Fort Riley. Is a tract of 19,800 acres lying- on both
sides of the Kansas river. The site of the fort proper
is on an undulating' ascent which rises to the lower
part of the limestone bluffs, where rock and chert are
crushed by machinery. The terrace conditions at
Junction City are the same as at Manhattan. On the
farm of Robert Henderson, southeast from Junction
City, the main (upper ) terrace rises 30 feet above the
lowest cultivated flood-plain and consists of red clay.
At the bottom, however, at the river level, may be
seen unmistakable northern drift in the form of
quartzyte small pebbles, and smaller rounded quartz-
ytes apparently derived from a conglomerate. These,
however, may not have been derived directly from
the Potsdam here, but may have entered first into a
conglomerate at the base of the Cretaceous existing
further west and thence transported down the valley
by some later agency. One pebble is 3l/> inches in
diameter. Mr. Henderson also showed me a red
quartzyte about ? inches in its longer diameter. It
was not water-rounded, but had been battered all
over, one side (edge) having been used evidently as
a knife-ax. It was found on the plowed bottom land.
He has also a small red mano-stone, or upper mill-
stone, which is oblong and battered all about the edge
a: if used for a hammer. He also stated that he had
found a red quartzyte pestle. These facts indicate
that formerly red quartzyte was not an uncommon
fact on his farm, or that these have been brought from
the morainic region further east by the aborigines.
Still the gravel above mentioned, evidently in part

PLAINS AT ABILENE. 141

from the Potsdam, rather indicates that this is on the
feather edge of the Kansas drift.

Abilene, The plain on which Abilene is situated
was flooded in 1!)0;>. It extends south to the river,
about a mile and three-quarters, and also about three-
quarters of a mile further south, where it is terminat-
ed by the great (upper) terrace which rises forty feet,
more or less, above this flood-plain. There are no
rock bluffs visible on the south side. Building rock is
hauled from Enterprise. This flood-plain is about 15
feet above the average normal flow of the river.

On the north side of Abilene the upper bench is
broken, but it contains sand which is used for cement.
This sand, on careful examination, affords but slight
evidence of ingredients derived from the northern
drift. It embraces, besides white quartz sand, very
much of ferruginated (Cretaceous) scales, also chert
which is mainly rotted, and lime concretions, and a
few larger, dark red or brown quartzyte pebbles
which, however, cannot be connected with the Pots-
dam with any certainty. This upper bench, on the
north side, extends so far north that it forms the gen-
eral upland of the country, and it is stated that at least
for 18 miles toward the north there is not much varia-
tion. The surface descends in a rather undulating
manner to the lower bench, and that also descends
somewhat to the river.

Between Junction and Abilene there seems to occur
some important underlying cause which determines
not only the greater hight of Abilene, but also the dis-
appearance of the outer (limestone) rock-bluffs. This
upper bench, which now rises and spreads so as to

142 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

constitute the general upland, is apparently that which
has been noted already at Junction, Manhattan and
elsewhere, but the composition is much more sandy.
It is about 40 feet above the flood-plain on which Ab-
ilene is located, but owing to moderate "dissection''
its actual average level is indeterminable, although so
far as can be judged by what has been seen it seems
to be a waterlaid formation.

New Cambria. At New Cambria the flood-plain is
broad, and the railroad stations are on it. Toward
the north, at a distance of a mile and a quarter, sand-
stone blufTs appear, rising about 75 feet. The rock
is scaly and probably Cretaceous. Round the bases
of these bluffs are remnants of what may have been
an alluvial terrace, which rise about 30 feet above the
flood-plain.

Toward the distant south, across the river, are
buttes of some rock formation, which are probably
Cretaceous.

The 1903 flood-plain is about 10 feet above the pres-
ent (high) stage of the river.

Salina. East from Salina, across the Smoky Hill
river, 'is an upper terrace, rising above the great ter-
race already noted, which is of Cretaceous sandstone
and sandy, scaly, mostly thin-bedded rock ; and about
two miles still further southeast is a line of buttes also
probably Cretaceous. The terrace mentioned has an
undulating upper surface, somewhat dissected, but its
top is still alluvial or lacustrine. It rises 50 or 60 feet
above Salina station. It appears to correspond to
what was seen at New Cambria. It furnishes not
only mortar sand, but some brown and purplish-brown

SECTION AT SALIXA.

143

pieces that somewhat resemble Potsdam. Otherwise,
about Salina the country is very flat and at the same
level (1,226) as the railroad station, in all directions
so far as can be seen, and liable to flooding as in 1903.

The upper surface of the Cretaceous terrace at Sa-
lina is composed of a red sandy soil, at least in part,
but it becomes (below) a red clay and a lighter-colored
clay.

At the brick-plant, east of the river, which is on the
flood-plain, is an exposed bluff of Cretaceous rising
above the flood-plain about 50 feet, of which the fig-
ure adjoined illustrates the structure.

Explanation :

1. Red, or light red clay,
or loess, vertically
jointed, in places
sandv 5 ft.

1 1

i i

• 'f'f s

J.
t.

Dislodged masses of
hard, rusty sand-
stone, waterworn. .1-3 ft.

Sandstone like Xo. 2
but apparently in

place 1-3 ft.

Blue shaly sandstone
, - and shale easily dis-

istegrated 50 ft.

The shaly sand and shale are
used in the plant, makng a red-
brown hard brck, mottled with
buff. The hard sandstone mass-
es are crushed by machinery and
sold for cement works.

There is a rather coarse silica-
sand obtained in great quantities
in a "pit" toward the north from

144 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

the brick plant, situated in the lower plain, the sand
of which is obliquely stratified, in part, by some rapid
current, probably of the river itself in its earlier his-
tory. This sand no doubt was derived from the Cre-
taceous.

Assaria. Is on a broad plain, but toward the west
(a little south) are seen some buttes, about three
miles distant.,

Lindsborg. At Lindsborg the great plain (the flood-
plain which was covered in 1903) extends indefinitely,
the only visible exception being the Cretaceous buttes,
already mentioned, toward the west. The extent of
this plain is surprising". It seems to be within the

area of the great lake described by Udden.* This
great plain was practically covered by water in lDUo,
but "it did not go up into town." An old settler \J.
M. Wilson) asserted that the flat at Lindsborg was
not generally covered in 1903. The Indians state,
however, that about 100 years earlier they went across
the prairie in canoes from Dry creek to Smoky Hill

*V. American Geologist VII, 340. Prof. Udden describes
a great . "trough" extending southward from the valley of
the Smoky Hill river cutting through the main watershed
of the state and connecting with the Arkansas valley. This
has been revealed by borings, etc.. for its presence is not in-
dicated by the surface topography, the country being level
as a lake. The materials in the southern end of this trough
are: yellow marl, volcanic dust, clay, sand, gravel, in de-
scending order, with variable thickness and composition, and
with pebbles of crystalline rock in the gravel, associated
with fossil wood and Mammalian bones. The Pleistocene in
this trough is at least 7 5 ft. thick, with volcanic dust at a level
of 1430 to 1480 feet. This dust was deposited in water and
assorted in layers. The surface of the lake was about 1480 ft.
above tide, and had an expanse several miles wide in the
trough and still wider in the Smoky Hill valley toward the
north. These deposits are "a remnant of the latest general
deposits of the plains" in that region. These beds are sup-
posed by Udden to be the probable equivalent of some part
of the "Equus beds" of Cope. According to J. E. Welin the
volcanic dust is 5 feet thick at the X. E. corner, Sec. L4. T.
18 S., R. 3 W\, Mcpherson Co. Cragin has called this dust
"pearlette beds".

THE FLOOD OF 1903.

145

river. Mr. Wilson stated that below the "wash,"
which fills the trough already mentioned to the depth
of 100 feet, is "soapstone," and that this soapstone
rises in the hills to near the tops, where it is covered
by a thin loam. These "hills" are the Cretaceous
buttes referred to. The city water of Lindsborg
which comes from the sand of this "wash," is very
hard, and can hardly be derived from the Cretaceous.
It may be shed into the trough by the lower-lying
Carboniferous so as to gather in considerable quanti-
ties in favorable situations.

According to the account of Mr. Wilson, confirmed
by others, the water of the flood of 1903 extended
much more over the flood-plain between Lindsborg
and Salina. From this it appears that the volume of
the river in flood time diminishes on going upstream
in comparison with the capacity of its banks, — in
other words, the actual volume of the water, in com-
parison with the valley, diminishes upstream, indicat-
ing that the valley was not excavated by the present
stream.

McPherson. At about six miles south from Linds-
borg the Union Pacific railroad grade makes a slight
cut in the Carboniferous (?) shale and shaly lime-
stone, covered by a loam of about 4 ft. The country
changes, getting away from the river, and becomes
first slightly undulating as we get out of the valley
toward the southeast. The Smoky Hills are in the
southern part of Saline county, west from Bridgeport,
and are composed of sandstone. At the limestone cut
there appears toward the east a higher terrace, appar-
ently ?5 feet above the lower, or flood-plain, which

14G

WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

may be due to rock strata. The train soon gets onto
this upper flat, which is undulating with some dissec-
tion, and as a "flat" it is soon lost. Without any ob-
servable ascent the road reaches its "summit" at Hil-
ton, where there is a fine flat country with a heavy
surface loam, the summit itself being a flat plain which
extends to McPherson, but with a slight descent
toward the south. There is no sign of any valley,
either recent or old. The divide at Hilton is 160 feet
above Lindsborg and McPherson city is 130 feet.

The valley described by Udden is said by Mr. Jeff
Tourney, of McPherson, who* as an alderman became
familiar with the city's explorations for water supply,
to be about seven miles wide and 175 feet deep.

East and west from the old valley, of which there
is no sign on the surface, the underlying rock rises to
within ten or twenty feet of the surface, as determined
by drilling for wells. The same flat extends to Galva,
eastward, from McPherson, and to Canton.

Without much attempt to correlate or discuss the
foregoing observations the writer puts them on rec-
ord for future use by others who may study the ter-
races of the Kansas valley. It would need more time
than was available in gathering more facts, to war-
rant an attempt to treat this subject with such thor-
oughness as the geological questions involved seem
to require.

Lake Uddsm. Probably the most important conclu-
sion that can be drawn, at least tentatively, from the
facts noted, as viewed from an archeological stand-
point, concerns the origin and date of the great upper
terrace which accompanies the Kansas valley. The

V-

LAKE UDDEX. 147

level of this upper terrace apparently blends into the
level of a lake bottom whose waters covered the val-
ley of the Kansas (or Smoky Hill) above Abilene.
Whether this lake, which may appropriately be called
Lake Udden. from the geologist who first noted it,
was of late Tertiary date, or pre-Glacial Pleistocene,
is not proven by the facts that are known ; but it ap-
pears evident that it was older than the Kansan Gla-
cial epoch. The writer is of the opinion that it may
be found to date from late Tertiary time, and that
probably the stream that then occupied the valley be-
tween the high rock bluffs, as at Manhattan, was the
discharge from a large Tertiary lake lying over west-
ern Kansas and extending northward into Nebraska.

It would be well to study the Kansas valley at
points eastward from the Kansas moraine, with spe-
cial reference to the continuance or absence of this
terrace. If it antedates the Kansan moraine it would
be likely to be destroyed where the ice of that epoch
buried the vallev. The writer did not observe anv
terrace at Topeka, but at Lawrence there is at the
depot a massive terrace which is excavated for brick,
and which by reason of its color and location is more
likely to be a dependency of the Kansas epoch.

Kmc Lake. This name has been given (by Smyth)
to a Glacial lake formed in the Kansas valley by the
damming of the Kansas river by the Kansas ice-
sheet.* The necessary production of such a lake by
the obstruction of the river by the ice and its
moraine has already been referred to (p. 38). Ac-

* Kansas Academy oc Science, "The buried moraine of the
Shunganunga". Vol. XVI, 1896-97.

14S WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

cording to Smyth this lake began at the "ice-dam"
about two miles above Wamego station and extended
above Manhattan, "westward on the Smoky Hill to
Salina and northward on the Blue nearly to Blue
Rapids." * * * "The depth of this lake at Man-
hattan was a little over 150 feet." Air. Smvth has
given the depth of this lake and of several other nearly
cotemporary Glacial lakes formed in some tributaries
of the Kansas from the south, at different places, viz.,
Mission creek, Mill creek and the Wakarusa river,
which must have been nearly on the same level,
though connected by broad ' streams. In only one
place has he mentioned any shore line, or bench-marks
proving the existence and the levels of any of these
lakes, viz., on the sides of Burnett's mound, southwest
from Topeka, in the Shunganunga valley. Mr.
Smyth guided the writer to this place, where by some
aneroid measurements some data were obtained from
which some calculation can be made as to the extent
of Kaw lake. The result of this calculation can be
considered only approximately correct, but so far as
it goes it throws light on the possible cause of the per-
sistent terrace which accompanies the Kansas river.
Bearing upon this are the following levels, partly de-
rived from Gannett's Dictionary of altitudes (U. S.
Geol. Survey), partly from statements of Mr. Smyth,
and partly from aneroid readings by the writer.

Topeka 880 ft.

Ice-dam, 2 miles southwest of Wamego 980

Wamego 989

Terrace, south side of the river at Wamego.... 1010

Lower shore line on Burnett's mound 1035

KAW LAKE.

149

Upper shore line on Burnett's mound

Top of Burnett's mound

Manhattan

Abilene

Salina

Lindsborg

1012

1115

1065

1154

1226

1241

Assuming the upper shore line on Burnett's mound
(1,065 ft.) as correctly ascertained, and also that it
expresses approximately the level of Kaw lake (though
that lake may have been sometimes a few feet higher
than this shore line) the depth of the Kaw lake at
Manhattan, above the present railroad station, was
53 feet, and the lake could not have reached Salina
(1,226 ft.) nor Abilene (1,15J:), nor Enterprise
(1,137), nor Junction City (1,0TS), but it must have
come very nearly to the junction of the Republican and
Smoky Hill rivers. The terrace seen at the south side
of the Kansas river opposite Wamego (1.010) appears
to be, therefore, 55 feet lower than this assumed level
of Kaw lake, and it may have been nearly cotempo-
rary with the lower shore line seen on Burnett's
mound, or it may express only the level of the bot-
tom of Kaw lake. It is" hardly worth while to con-
sider the extent of Kaw lake on the supposition that
the lower shore line on Burnett's mound indicates its
surface level. It is 30 feet lower than the upper.

, While it is probable, therefore, that the action of
Kaw lake in the Kansas valley could not have pro-
duced the terraces seen above Junction City, yet it
mav be responsible for some terraces seen below that
point. Artificial stone implements found on a terrace
formed by the Kaw lake would be post-Kansan, and.

150 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

according" to the foregoing classification, might be
Early Neolithic or even Neolithic, and those found
on the terraces above Junction City, on the assump-
tion that they are due to an older Tertiary stream,
might be Paleolithic, Early Neolithic and Neolithic,
in the same manner as those that occur on the uplands
outside of the valley.

It will be noticed that the hight of Kaw lake above
Manhattan, as determined above, differs by 100 feet
from that given by Mr. Smyth. As already stated,
Mr. Smyth does not indicate what evidence in the
form of shore lines or beaches, or other water marks,
he depended on to reach this result, and only in one
instance mentions the existence of any shore lines, in
all his discussion, viz. : in Shunganunga river on Bur-
nett's mound. It is from this datum that it appears
that the level given by him (150 ft.) is much too high.
If, however, it shall appear by later examination, that
the shore-line on Burnett's mound is not at the (near)
level of Kaw lake, and that other data will require
that Kaw lake stood at 150 feet above Manhattan, it
would be sufficient to carry the lake up the valley a
little beyond i\bilene at an elevation of 1,162 feet
above tide. It would require a still further elevation
of 32 feet at Abilene to bring Kaw lake up to the level
of the extensive plain that extends northward from
that city.

It is a desideratum that the Kansas terraces be care-
fully examined both in the interest of Glacial geology
and from an archeological point of view.

THE SALT AND THE BIG BLUE. 151

IN OTHER WESTERN MUSEUMS AND PRIVATE

COLLECTIONS.

Lincoln, Nebraska. In the museum of the Nebraska
Historical Society is a collection of aboriginal stone
artifacts and a much larger one of textile and other
articles. Among the former are specimens that fall
into the Early Neolithic stage, both as to time and as
to culture, some of which are of blue-gray chert and
were obtained by Air. Blackmail in southern Ne-
braska.

Southward from Lincoln red quartzyte boulders
were observed in a loamy drift' about the head of Salt
creek, perhaps ten mlies south of Hanlon, the con-
tours of the surface being gentle but probably mo-
rainic. The drift is loess-like. An extensive flat then
supervenes and extends to and beyond Princeton.
This plain apparently was caused by having been the
bottom of an extensive lake, perhaps of Tertiary date.
It continues to Cortland, and in the drainage cuts re-
veals lacustrine clay, which clay, however, may be of
later date than Tertiary. At Cortland this plain
shows some dissection by local drainage. The gen-
eral level then begins' to descend toward the south,
the dissection increasing, and a small creek forms,
running south, no "drift" appearing either at Pickerell
or at Beatrice. At Holmesville a chert-bearing lime-
stone appears in the banks. It was near this place
that Air. Blackmail found some rude artifacts which
he assigned to the same class as those at Quivira, de-
scribed by Air. Brower.

Blue Springs. James Crawford's Collection. At Blue
Springs and Wymore this chert is quarried extensive-

152 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

ly for road-metal. Its outcrops along the valley of the
Big Blue river in this vicinity afforded material for
the rude implements made by the aborigines, not alone
for the late (Indian) aborigine but for his predeces-
sors for many generations, and probably for many
thousands of years earlier. Indeed, judging from the
few specimens remaining of the collection of Air.
James Crawford, near Wymore, (Sec. 22, T. 2 N., R.
7 W.) who gave the bulk of his collection, through
Mr. Blackmail, to the Nebraska Historical Society,
already noted above, this locality has been a resort
for chert knappers since Paleolithic times. Mr.
Crawford, an old settler since 18T1, occupies a farm
which is on the edge of the Kansas moraine, yet inter-
sected by the erosion of the upper Carboniferous lime-
stone by the river, forming rock bluffs on the crests
of which the usual boulders of red quartzyte are com-
mon, along with some that are of granite, trap and
red felsyte. These are brought to light by the rapid
washing away of the thick surface loam under which
the country is buried. There are no boulders visible
in general in the upland fields. This loess lies di-
rectly on the Kansas drift, and it seems to be Iowan.
These artifacts, therefore, so far as they are Early
Neolithic and embrace the tomahawk, are probably
post-Iowan, and apparently of the age of the toma-
hawks that lie on the great terrace of the Kansas val-
ley. Still it is not certain yet, so far as present ob-
servation extends, that these artifacts were not buried
beneath this loam, and have become superficial by
washing away of the loam, in the same manner as the
quartzyte boulders.

PALEOLITH RECHIPPED. 153
Mr. Crawford's collection, as presented to the Ne-
braska Historical Society, embraced tomahawks of the
"tomahawk people" of Mr. Brower, and some large
spatulate pieces. At his house was seen an old speci-
men outlined by the figures below, actual size, show-

I'uleolithic* Implement Re-chlpned iu Karly Xeolithie Time.

ing unmistakable Early Neolithic chipping'. It was
a rude knife or blade, and its latest chip-surfaces are-
so weathered as to show that they far antedated the
Neolithic. The specimen is convex on both surfaces,
and was given its form by chipping', which entirely
covered it, the latest at the ends, apparently to give
it fresh edges in Early Neolithic time. The figures
show opposite sides of the specimen.

154 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

1. Patinated Paleolithic surfaces.

2. Early Neolithic chip-surfaces.

3. A bruise, or break, which appears on both sides.
Mr. Blackmail's reports are published in the State

Agricultural Society's reports, especially that dated
1902 where he presents several plates of "Harahey"
and "Quivira" types, as defined by Mr. Brower, in-
cluding a tomahawk of the typical form, which was
found by Mr. F. E. Crawford on his father's farm.
Most of Mr. Blackman's illustrations were taken, how-
ever, from the large collection of Mr. Walter Rice
(Sec. 16, T. 2-7), which shows chip-surfaces that are
Early Paleolithic (or pre-Paleolithic) and Early Neo-
lithic. The pottery and polished stone axes in Air.
Rice's collection are, of course, of Neolithic date.
These articles sufficiently show that the "Quivira" cul-
ture was not restricted to the typical locality in Kan-
sas, but extended at least as far north as Blue Springs
in Nebraska.

The Rotting of Chert.
Some important observations as to the weathering
of stone artifacts were made at Wymore, viz. : some
chert artifacts are so old that they are rotted nearly
all through. That seen at Mr. Crawford's (above de-
scribed) was rotted deeply, and this could be seen on
the Early Neolithic surfaces, which were finely
roughened from decay, while the Early Paleolithic
surfaces still retained the brown patina scale, though
broken by some hard blows at the places indicated
(3). In Mr. Rice's collection are two small, Early
Neolithic, buff-yellow artifacts whose surfaces are so

v..

DISINTEGRATION OF CHERT. 155

disintegrated in places that they give a loose fine pow-
der when rubbed. They are thin, ovate, or ovate-
oval, blades, and the chipping' round the edge is also
disintegrated. It appears, therefore, that since the
Early Neolithic chipping these specimens have suf-
fered such atmospheric attacks that the integrity of
the chert has been superficially destroyed. It appears
also that the patina scale formed in Paleolithic time
served as a protection to the chert, excluding the de-
structive agents, whether gaseous or liquid, which
might act on the granular texture of the chert wher-
ever freshly broken. The Paleolithic patina, espe-
cially a gloss, smooths the surfaces so as to make
them impervious, resembling glass. A fresh chert-
fracture exposes the texture of the interior, and opens
the fine porosity to the entrance of moisture and hence
subjects the surface to freezing and thawing. It may
be, also, that these rotted specimens, found at the
margin of the Kansas moraine, have been liable to ex-
ceptional disintegrating conditions.

McPherson. Dr. Vance N. Robb has an interesting
collection consisting mainly of Early Neolithic and
Neolithic specimens and three Paleoliths from Indi-
ana. He has also found Paleoliths at McPherson of
which he exhibited several specimens. One is of
white chert, one of siderite, now stained dark brown
by oxidation, and one of yellowish quartzyte, also two
double tomahawks of Early Neolithic date, one of
which is of blue-gray chert.

Topcka. In the collection of W. E. Richey, now in
the keeping of the Kansas Historical Society, are a
few that are Paleoliths, some tomahawks of the "torn-

150 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

ahawk people," and flakes and rude knives of the same
age, and numerous other Early Neolithic implements.
He has two identical specimens, of twenty or more
kinds, from two different localities (in sets), one from
the Cottonwood basin and the other from the Smoky
Hill basin, intending to show that the culture of the
Indians had no bearing- on the location of Ouivira,
seen by Coronado.

Kansas City, Mo. Mr. M. C. Long has a large and
valuable collection, which, being boxed, could not be
seen, but he showed me some samples made from a
wholly rotted (or altered) chert. They are of a light

Outlines of specimens seen in the Pub lie Library.

buff color, finely versicular, and of low specific grav-
ity, with an exterior more or less darkened by iron
oxide. This chert has not rotted since the imple-
ments were made, but before it was taken from the

PUBLIC LIBRARY, KANSAS CITY. 157

native formation. It is known as ''cotton rock.' They
show Neolithic and perhaps Early Neolithic culture.
They consist of a celt-like hoe, a hammer and two
axes. The cotton rock is found in southern Missouri
and southern Illinois.

A visit was made with Air. Long to the Public Li-
brary, where can be seen, under bad illumination, a
fine display of aboriginal material, but not much that
can be considered Paleolithic. The outlines above
show forms seen here which are possibly pre-Kansan.
They are made of a light-colored chert which is com-
mon in Missouri artifacts.

The collection also embraces some English and
French Paleoliths.

St. Louis. Dr. H. M. Whelpley has a remarkable
private collection, to which I was conducted through
the courteous introduction of Dr. W. F. Parks. Dr.
Whelpley has more than 500 hematite axes, and also
several of kidney iron ore. The latter are coated with
a scale closely resembling hematite, and when the
scale is unbroken can hardly be distinguished from
genuine hematites. In Dr. YYhelpley's collection can
be seen evidence of the great length of the "Neolithic"
period of aboriginal culture, inasmuch as he has a lot
of chert chips and Neolithic long knives, well trimmed
and handsome, of a light-colored, dense chert, from
L'nion county, 111., which are covered with a thin scale,
or at least with a staining of a reddish-brown color,
quite similar to the color patination of Kansas speci-
mens. The length of time necessary for such altera-
tion, in the case of this dense chert, in the opinion of
the writer, would carry their fabrication into pre-Wis-

: V-

158 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

cousin time, and hence into what is distinguished, in
this article, as Early Neolithic.

It is a remarkable fact that implements of kidney
iron ore, of Neolithic culture, have been so long made
that they have acquired a thick scale, even a double
scale, of iron oxide. Along with some problematic
pieces of elongate but rectangular shape, were seen
some celts, some semi-globular discoids and several
axes, made of this ore. He also has some siderite im-
plements that were at first naturally shaped by the
partings of the rock and had acquired in situ an orig-
inal scale of oxide, after which they were worked to
an ax or chisel form, especially by the grinding at
one end to an edge. After this working the ground
surfaces have also oxidized so that the whole imple-
ment is covered with an iron scale. But I think there
may be a perceptible difference between the old iron
scale and the more recent. Prof. George H. Perkins
has illustrated an ax of clay iron stone from Vermont,
also much altered superficially, in Am. Nat. Dec. 1885.

Dr. Whelpley also exhibited a series of rude, large,
elongate-ovate or wedge-shaped celts (or axes or
what?) of Paleolithic 'making and style of chipping,
which seem to be as late as Neolithic in weathering.
They grade from a length of 20 inches to 21 inches or
less. They seem to belong, as a class, with the rude
Neolithic intrusive culture of which evidence in Kan-
sas has already been mentioned (pp. 128-130).

The large Neolithic chert "spades," so-called, which
are common in southern Illinois, are made, according
to Dr. Whelpley, from a dense chert which occurs in
thin layers in a sort of clay, and that hence the na-

ART MUSEUM. CINCINNATI. 159

tives easily procured it by digging in the clay. There
are extensive chert workings in Union county, 111.
Many (or most) of the implements made from this
chert, so far as seen, are fresh and quite light-colored.

The museum of the Academy of Science, St. Louis,
contains nothing in stone work that is Paleolithic, and
but little that is aboriginal. But it has a large col-
lection of pots of earthen ware, unlabeled.

The archeological collection of the Missouri His-
torical Society (St. Louis) was boxed and has been
since the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.

Cincinnati. The Museum of -the Cincinnati Society
of Natural History has a large collection of human
skulls, aboriginal and probably largely from mounds,
many celts, axes and hammers, also rolling stones (or
"pins'') pestles, discoids, globular stones, gorgets of
bone and of stone, many animal bones, earthen pots,
arrow points, leaves and drills, but nothing that is
actually Paleolithic. Although some leaves and celts
are coarsely chipped, they show by the polish at the
end that they were at least used by the latest stone-
chipping people, and may have been made by them.
Most of the stone celts' are wholly ground.

At the Art Museum. Cincinnati, is a very large and
well-displayed collection of aboriginal material of
which the stone artifacts arranged geographically are
an important portion, included in the "Cleneay collec-
tion." They are mainly from the Ohio valley, and
extend from Pennsylvania to the mouth of the Ohio,
and further, on both sides of the river. Many others
were presented by Gen. M. F. Force. There are but
few of Paleolithic or Early Neolithic significance, viz.:

100 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

1. There are a few coarse-chipped leaves, but
nothing to show that they are pre-Glacial.

2. There are several old axes of syenyte, or gabbro
(or dioryte) which are deeply decayed, like one in the
Brower collection which is said to have been taken
from the bottom of the Ohio river. These are
grooved, but there are many that are not decayed.

3. Two glossed, ovate or ovate-oblong leaves or
knives, from Belmont, Campbell Co., Ky., of dense
pink-gray chert. (It is noticeable here, as elsewhere,
lhat the implements of large size (axes, pestles, ham-
mers) when not made of native material, which is
rare, are of some variety of greenstone. This is due
probably to the fact that such stones endured after
the Kansas epoch better than the granite rocks, which
crumbled by decay). Hematite specimens are dis-
tributed through the collection.

4. Two other similar pieces, one of light chert and
the other of gray chert. They do not show distinct
gloss, and their only apparent Paleolithic character is
their coarse chipping, locality not stated.

5. Two others of "flint," i. e., gray chert of similar
appearance.

6. Part of a deposit of 1500 found in 1872 at
Beardstown, Cass county, 111. These number 14.
Two or three of these show the supposed Glacial cal-
careous patina (f) described on page 10. Their thick-
ness is from lo inch to 1 inch. The age of these
caches is problematical. It is not presumed by the
writer that they are Paleolithic, as to date, though
they show a rough chipping resembling the work of
the Paleolithic people.

OHIO A KCHEOLOGIC AL AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 1G1

The main part of the entire collection is Neolithic,
and of the stone artifacts but a portion are Early Neo-
lithic. This is indicated by the nature of the imple-
ments, their finish and the comparative freshness of
the surfaces.

Columbus. In the museum of the Ohio Archeologi-
cal and Historical Society are archeological materials
as follows, which indicate great age, probably Early
Neolithic.

1. Semi-rotted hammers of granitic rock.

2. A lot of unfinished specimens of quartzyte from
the District of Columbia.

3. Siderite celt and siderite long celt covered with
oxide scale (in the Moorhead collection).

4. Part of a large collection found by Moorhead,
consisting of oval or ovate-oval chert blades or
"blanks" of gray chert (four pieces). These are dis-
tinctly glossy, but less so than those seen at Cincin-
nati.

5. Paleoliths (two) from Dr. John Evans of En-
gland. These are of the same chert and appearance
as those illustrated on plates I and II, Nos. 2228 and
2229.

The most interesting thing in this museum is the
display of the findings in the Harness and other
mounds, explored lately by Prof. Mills, in one case
showing' a succession of peoples or tribes which oc-
curred during the mound builder dynasty.

Newark, 0. On the "Flint" ridge, ten miles south-
east of Newark, at a 4-corners, at Clark's blacksmith
shop, is said to be one of the chief workshops of the
aborigines. Here are many pits, and the ground is

162 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

covered with chips of all shapes, of which I collected
enough to fill a small "telescope" when packed for
shipment. This is near the center of Hopewell town-
ship. The pits and workshops cover about two acres,
about the four corners, and extend further south. I
cannot say that I found anything certainly Paleolithic,
although there are some old, yellowish-brown sur-
faces, which, however, may have been caused by rust-
ed, pre-existing jointage or cleavage planes, rather
than by open atmospheric exposure. Air. Clark said
that he does not believe that the present Indians did
the work. It is probable that in that he is right, as
the work is rather attributable to the Ohio dynasty
of the Moundbuilders, or to some of their predeces-
sors.

It would require much time to determine whether
Paleolithic man had any part in making these excava-
tions. The location, as in Kansas, is not only favor-
ably near a chert-bearing limestone ridge, but is quite
near the southern limit of the g'reatest known conti-
nental ice-sheet. Only scattering pebbles of norther-
ly drift are seen on the ridge at the western end. It
is a promising location at which to look for Paleo-
lithic artifacts. Large craggy masses of chert, more
or less diversified by quartz and amethystine geodes,
are a common feature on the slopes.

Cleveland. At the museum of the Western Reserve
Historical Society the Xewcomerstown "Paleolith"
found by Prof. W. C. Mills in 1S89 can be seen. It
is of ''black chert," but is variegated with fragments
of fossils which are whitish on the surface, and with
some porosity, as well as with some small remaining

MINN. HIST. SOC.
PAI.EOLITH. NEWCOMERSTOWN, O. PAGE 162.

XEWCOMERSTOWX PALEOLITH. 163

part of the limestone with which the chert is asso-
ciated, the last not being glossy. Otherwise the spec-
imen is glossy. The longer edges were battered by
use prior to its having been incorporated in the gravel,
on one side more than on the other. The gloss and
the generally unworn surface, and the sharpness of
the outer angles, all indicate that as a constituent of
the gravel terrace it had not much experience before
coming to rest in the terrace, but that the most of its
life history transpired prior to the gravel deposition.
The sides are about equally glossy. If the gravel
terrace be found to be a consequent of the Wisconsin
ice-epoch, it appears therefore that this implement
originated earlier, and falls into the culture as well
as the date of what is herein called Early Neolithic.
Its date is pre-Wisconsin, but not pre-Kansan. (Com-
pare No. 5715 of plate XIII.) It is noteworthy that
like numerous Early Neoliths and Paleoliths, it was
most used along its lateral edges instead of on its ends.
This specimen has been described by Dr. G. F. Wright
in Tract 73 of the Western Reserve Historical Society,
Vol. Ill, April 14, 1890, and in Popular Science
Monthly, May, 1893. The form of this specimen is
quite common among the Kansas artifacts, and had
a wide range in aboriginal stone art. It is referred to
on a former page under Celts (p. 123). V. plate XVI.

Chicago. In the Field museum (1) in the case
showing the archeology of Alabama, Florida and Ar-
kansas, are about 40, rudely chipped, celt-like and
knife-like implements of chert from Decatur county,
Tenn., the appearance of the culture of which seems
to be Paleolithic. On the label they are called "Im-

164 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

plements and rejects." The material is not dense and
siliceous, and they are not much glossy. They are
from 4 to S inches in length.

2. In the same case are some "flint implements and
rejects from the banks of the Kansas river, J. V.
Brower." These are ten in number, two tomahawks,
three rude tomahawks but not notched, three small
knives or arrowpoints, and the others are nonde-
script or purposeless. They are of blue-gray chert,
somewhat mottled, in color as well as in grain, all
Early Neolithic Xo. 1 of this paper.

3. So-called "rlint disk-like implement," Beards-
town, 111., evidently from the great cache found there.
This is dark, almost black, glossy.

4. Leaf-shaped, brown, quartzyte implements from
Illinois.

5. In the Clark and Hopewell mounds, Ross coun-
ty, central Ohio, which are situated in the "second
terrace" along with many remarkable other discov-
eries, Mr. Moorhead found a cache of flint disks num-
bering in all "over T000." From this lot specimens
have been distributed^ to- various places, but an enor-
mous conical stack of them occupies one of the glazed
cases. They are oval and ovate. The total taken
from the mound (Xo. 22) is 8,185, including those
taken out prior to Moorhead's discoveries. They are
of a "light blue-gray color," made from flint nodules
found in Indiana and Tennessee, considered not fin-
ished implmeents but "roughed-out" raw material, to
be elaborated as required. Some of the edges appear
slightly battered, as if by use, but generally the finer
chipping about the edges may be referred to the chip-

THE FIELD MUSEUM, CHICAGO. 165

ping incident to their formation. Some of them ap-
pear to be sub-glossed, but perhaps owing- to the dust
which obscures them, 1 could not see that any marked
glossiness exists on them. They have a general
smoothness which in some cases appears to approach
a gloss, which denotes considerable age but not char-
acteristic of Early Neolithic time. They must be later
than the terrace on which they were found, and hence
probably are post-Wisconsin.

6. A stone celt, found with skeleton 262, mound
2d, of the Hopewell group, is coated with an incrusta-
tion of light gray color, probably caused by the decay
of the bodies or other organic matter, as it shows the
maggot-like forms which I have before noted on
mound articles. The celt is of chert, apparently, and
about seven inches long, and was worn smooth by use
at the. broad end before it was buried. This celt and
its culture indicate strongly the Neolithic age of the
mounds, as do all the other important discoveries in
the Hopewell group, with the bare possible exception
of the cache of 8.185 oval cherts, and without further
proof to the contrary the cache itself has to be as-
signed to the same date. Still, it is a remarkable fact,
according to Moorhead (Stone Age in North Amer-
ica, I, 220). that the chert of these oval disks came
from northwestern Tennessee while ''most of the
chipped objects on the village sites of the Hopewell
group and in the mounds were made of Flint Ridge
material/' This difference of source of the chert may
warrant the suggestion that the cache of disks may not
be due to the same people as the other implements.

There were found also several other stone celts,

1GG WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

''one in an unfinished state," being of different rock
and also containing what appears to be a "glacial
patina,'' about the broader edge. On one of the others
is an incrustation (slight ) which may be due to or-
ganic decay, or to glacial patina. A similar white in-
crustation is found on some of the chert arrowpoints
"found with skeleton Xo. 186, mound 23."

7. In a case near the north entrance are European
artifacts, Paleolithic and Neolithic, some of the former
called "flint rejects," chiefly from county Down, Ire-
land.

8. In the same case a "series representing the proc-
ess of manufacturing flint implements," embraces
mainly Paleolithic artifacts from ancient Egypt.

9. Paleoliths are here also from Egypt. Somaliland
("rejects"), and from Poondi, near Madras, India, the
last being labeled "Paleolithic implements," also from
England, from the British Museum.

10. The Martin A. Ryerson Swiss Lakes collection
contains only Neolithic stone artifacts.

Milwaukee. In the Public Museum, after a fruit-
less search through the cases and the most of the
drawers containing "refuse stuff" and duplicates, a sin-
gle oval Paleolithic "blade" was found in the last
drawer opened, not of European origin. The chert is
gray and apparently made up largely of sub-rounded
small grains of chert in a matrix of chert. It is patin-
ated with yellowish, or ochre color, and has a gloss
that is distinct all over. Its longer diameter is 6J4
inches, its shorter about 4*4 inches. It was through
the courteous aid of Curator S. A. Barrett that this
implement was found, and by the kindness of Direc-

WISCONSIN PALEOLITH IN Tli:^ PUBLIC MUSEUM.

MILWAUKEE. WIS. TWO-THIRDS ACTUAL SIZE. PAGE 166.

PUBLIC MUSEUM, MILWAUKEE. 167

tor H. L. Ward that the accompanying illustration
(three-fourths actual size) is presented (plate XV).
Its number is -gj|| and on searching the records it
was found to have been derived from Adams county,
Wisconsin, which is outside the line of the Wisconsin
moraine, but quite near it. This specimen has the
torm of a true Paleolith, as the term is used in this
discussion, but its age is likely to be post-Kanson, i. e.,
Early Neolithic.

Madison. (1) The museum of the Wisconsin His-
torical Society contains a collection of rude artifacts
from Seneca, Mo. They are made of a light-colored
chert, similar to that of some large spears and knives
("points") in the Brower collections, derived from
Missouri. On breaking one of the triangular flakes,
Curator Brown found the light color is not due to a
patina, but that the material is white within ; but on
close inspection it is to be noted that the interior
whiteness has a whiter scale, evidently due to weath-
ering. This locality has been described by Dr. W. C.
Barnard in "Records of the Past," October, 1905. To
the writer it seems quite probable that the Newton
county (Okla.) working is as old as any in Kansas,
although no certainly Paleolithic artifacts from there
have been seen as yet by the writer. *

(2) At Crescent, Mo., is another similar old work-
ing of which some chips and implements are in- the
same case, given by Dr. H. M. W'hfclpley, of St. Louis.
These, and the above, are labeled ''rejects and rough-

*Dr. Bernard sent subsequently, in exchange, some white
quarry pieces and a collection of turtles and points from
Xewton county, Mo., the latter of Early Neolithic age.

108 WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

ing-out material." They may be, however, Early Neo-
lithic, or even Paleolithic in part.

(3) In the same museum are a lot of glossed chips,
etc., from the so-called Spanish diggings and Indian
quarries in Converse and Laramie counties, in Wyo-
ming, presented by Robt. F. Gilder, embracing
quartzyte and chert of various colors, some of them
of flint, proper, i. e.. apparently of fossil wood.

A collection of these from Mr. Gilder, from near
Fairbanks, Wyoming, are certainly of Early Neo-
lithic date, and possibly earlier. Mostly of quartzyte,
like the Potsdam of Minnesota, they are also of chert
of different colors, and one (of flint) is flecked as if
fossilliferous with fine angular fragments.

(4) Contents of two caches at Richland City, Wis.,
gray chert, roughly chipped ''blanks", deposited by
Charles E. Brown. These pieces are smaller than
those of the cache in the Hopewell mound, found in
Ohio by Moorehead.

(5) Rhyolyte material, Blue Bell bay, Puckaway
lake. Green Lake Co., Wis. Some of this is very old,
as shown by the change of surface color and by the
culture, dating probably from pre- Wisconsin time.

(6) Specimen numbered ''A1491", in another case,
is outlined by the figure below. It is notched at the
broad end as if to be applied to a handle. It differs
from all others in the cases, as far as seen, in having
a yellowish patina and gloss, similar to that seen at
Milwaukee. It is of light gray chert. I could not learn
the source of the specimen. It falls into Early Neo-
lithic time both by its weathered condition and by its
culture. Plate XVII.

WISCONSIN EARLY N EOLITH IN THE MUSEUM OF THE

RESUME AND CONCLUSIONS. 1G9

RESUME AND CONCLUSIONS.

Resume. The reader who has perused the foregoing
pages devoted to "a consideration of the Paleoliths of
Kansas" will be glad to have the main results brought
into a smaller compass. For this purpose a resume
of the steps along which the investigation has been
prosecuted will be a suitable introduction.

170 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

1. The Kansas artifacts are of at least three differ-
ent and successive dates. This is shown by a compari-
son of the oldest with European Paleoliths which they
resemble in patination and in culture, and by the fact
that the rudest implements have been taken as basis
for the making of nicer implements by later working.
Therefore the Indians found in the Kansas valley
(Wichita) who were supposed by Mr. Brower to have
been the fabricators of the oldest implements, were in
no way connected with their manufacture.

2. The blue-gray chert of the Upper Carboniferous
in Kansas is abundantly exposed in the region. The
specimens made from it, when old, are covered with
a patina which varies in color and kind according to
the length of time exposed and the nature of the ex-
posure, six of these kinds of patination being noted and
described.

3. The characters of the oldest implements indicate
that the Paleolithic artizan was satisfied, in the main,
with the acquirement of an edge, but he also brought
his implements into an ovate, or oval, or squarish
shape, and, as found later, he occasionally drew them
out into the form of parallel-edged knives about eight
or ten inches in length. There are no Paleolithic scrap-
ers, nor points, nor drills, and knives only that occa-
sionally are elongated with two nearly parallel edges.

4. There was found to be a stage of culture, as
well as of patination. intermediate between the fore-
going and the Xeolithic, in which are found finished
knives (the 'Tlarahey knife" for example), points
which were used as knives, as well as knives of deli-
cate elongate form and fine chipping; also scrapers,

RESUME AND CONCLUSIONS. 171

blades, spears and arrow points. It was found that a
large majority of Kansas artifacts fall into this group.

5. In order to form a preliminary classification four
time-classes were designated, viz: Early Paleolithic,
Paleolithic, Early Neolithic and Neolithic*

6. These specimens are found further south than
the Kansas moraine, but not far from it. and closely
adjacent, to the outcropping chert of the Upper Car-
boniferous. The Paleolithic, Early Neolithic, and the
Neolithic are found sometimes mingled at the same
sites, indicating a succession of people who chose for
habitation the same situations, resorting to the same
chert beds for material, and probably resembling each
other in many ways.

7. The Indians met by Coronado in Kansas were
the Wichita and the Pawnee, both of Caddo stock,
the former the Ouivira, of Brower, and the latter the
Harahey.

8. In this paper the term Paleolithic is applied to
any people, and their artifacts, which antedated the
Kansan Glacial epoch. . Early Neolithic includes the
time elapsed between the Kansan and the Wisconsin
Glacial epochs, and Neolithic applies to people who
have existed in Kansas since the Wisconsin.

9. It was found that only at one point in the scale
of culture is there a marked transition to a higher
type. That occurs at the passage from Paleolithic to
Early Neolithic. Early Neolithic culture is found to
continue to, and into. Neolithic, and can be separated
from Neolithic, so far as expressed by the Kansas

*Later it has been found convenient to subdivide again, viz:
Early Neolithic No. 1, and Early Neolithic No. 2; also Neo-
lithic No. 1 and Neolithic No. 2.

172 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

specimens, only by the marked glossiness which de-
notes greater ag"e for the former.

10. It was also found that Paleolithic types did not
cease with the close of the Kansas Glacial epoch, but
continued into, and through, Early Neolithic, and even
into Neolithic time.

11. In weathering the first effect produced on a piece
of chert is the formation of a gloss. This gloss may
be lost by decay, or it may be replaced by a colored
(or white) weather-scale which is not glossy but yet
smooth, and still later the brown weather-scale may
be covered by a white scale. The color of the scale
depends on the presence or absence of iron dissolved
in water having access to the specimen.

12. As a general principle: all Paleolithic art was
perpetuated, or may have been perpetuated, into Early
Neolithic and Neolithic time, and all Early Neolithic
into Neolithic ; and hence the progress of stone chip-
ping was essentially a continual introduction of new
forms and higher skill without the necesasry loss of
any of the older forms.

13. Early Neolithic man seems not to have been en-
tirely ambidextral, but used his tools most with his
right hand.

14. Near the close of Early Neolithic time a new
and coarse type of stone chipping was introduced into
Northeastern Kansas, so coarse that though the im-
plements made were about the same in kind as those
of the Early Neoliths, yet the skill displayed in the
making of them was not much in advance of the Pale-
oliths. Page 130 and Plate NIN.

CONCLUSIONS. 173

15. This new culture may have been introduced
as a consequence of climatic change that inaugurated
the Wisconsin Glacial epoch, and in the terms of this
paper, is actually Neolithic. (Neolithic No. 1).

Conclusions. The people of the Iowan Glacial
epoch, represented by the skull and skeleton found in
the loess at Lansing, Kansas, probably took part in
the making of some of the. Early Neolithic implements
found on the Kansas upland interior, and were a part
only of a wide-spread race which, we may assume, oc-
cupied much of the interior of North America. Their
bony skeleton and their skull, as well as their culture,
did not differ noticeably from those of the modern
Neolithic man as represented by the historic Indian.
This statement is based not only on the foregoing re-
searches but also on the opinion of Dr. Ales Hrdlicka*
who stated :

"Considered anthropologically, all the parts of the
skeleton, and the skull in particular, approach closely,
in every character of importance, the average skeleton
of the present-day Indian of the central states. Zoo-
logically, as well as in growth, the Lansing skeleton
and the skeleton of the typical present-day Indian of
the upper Mississippi region are of the same degree
and quality."

This coincidence of archeological results with those
which are more strictly anthropological is interesting
and suggestive. At the time of the discovery of the
Lansing skull and skeleton there was considerable dis-
cussion as to their age, and owing to the affinity which
was apparent between the Lansing man and the his-

* American Anthropologist. V. 323, 1003.

v..

174 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

toric Indian, and especially because some leading au-
thorities in America discredited the existence of man
in America earlier than the Wisconsin ice age, there
was a tendency also to discredit this discovery, and
to show that the loess in which they were found was
not true loess of the Iowan epoch, but was formed by
a "slide" of late date, or belonged to the alluvial de-
posits of a small stream which there joins the Mis-
souri river. But by the light thrown on the subject
by these artifacts, dating from between the Kansan
and the Wisconsin epochs, it is clear that the culture
and therefore the ancestry, of the historic Indian ex-
tend backward far beyond the Wisconsin Glacial
epoch, and it is not at all unreasonable to expect to
find the skeleton and skull of the Indian, in all im-
portant respects, not dissimilar to those of his ances-
tors.

In Europe, in Asia and in Africa, and even in South
America, as well as in Australia, remains of men have
been found which archeologists and geologists have
accepted not only as pre-Glacial but sometimes Early
Pleistocene and even Tertiary. Those found in Ar-
gentina, South America, are questioned by some, it is
true,* but with that exception the rest of the entire
globe, with its principal geographic divisions, has af-
forded evidence of the great antiquity of the human
race. To exempt North America seems not only an-
omalous but more unreasonable than to welcome all
the evidence which has accumulated going to show

*The South American evidence has recently been reviewed
by Hrdlicka, and, as in North America, has been questioned
and discredited. Bulletin 52, Bureau of American Ethnology,
1012.

CONCLUSIONS. 175

such antiquity here also. On such a question it is
safe to be very cautious and conservative, but it be-
hooves men of science, on the other hand, not to carry
their conservatism so far that it passes into unreason.
It appears now that the existence of Paleolithic man
in America has been supported by so many witnesses
that it is beyond "reasonable doubt."

If man has existed in America since pre-Glacial
time archeologists will naturally look for some trace
of his industry and art. Not to mention the ancient
ruins in Central and South America, the dates of which
are not yet determined but which may be older than
the Wisconsin Glacial epoch, it appears to the writer
altogether possible, and even probable, that many of
the stone implements which, in the museums of the
United States have been classified as Neolithic, had
their origin earlier than the Wisconsin epoch, and
would fall into the class Early Neolithic, as here de-
fined, and that hence a critical re-examination would
lead to a general division of our American stone arti-
facts into Early Neolithic and Neolithic, based
mainly on the degree of patination. That would
bring perhaps a majority of the stone artifacts
of America (here called Early Neolithic) into
chronological equivalence with those which in
Europe are considered of "Neolithic'' date, and
would also make the actual Neolithic (i. e., post-Wis-
consin) implements of America substantially parallel
with the bronze and iron ages of Europe. There is
reason to believe that after the last Glacial epoch had
subsided in Europe, extensive migrations from Asia
introduced bronze and later iron, into the renovated

V-

176 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

lands, and that these metals then first became common
in the fabrication of such tools as had before been
made of flint ; but that the stone age was perpetuated
in America until after the Columbian discovery, only
because no such post- Wisconsin Asiatic migration
flowed into America.

V-

INDEX. 177

INDEX.
A.

Abbott, C. C, A pioneer in Paleolithology in America... 50

Abilene, terraces and plains..." 141, 150

Academy of Science, St. Louis 159

Age, different signs of 97

Alma, specimens collected 137

Alta Vista, location and artifacts 139

Aqueous deposits of the lower Kansas valley 39

Aqueous origin of the Loess 49

Archeological reconnoissance in Nebraska, Kansas, etc. 133

Ariki and Arikara, of the Pawnee 46

Arrowpoint, its introduction in Early Neolithic time.. 42, 57

Art. Paleolithic antecedent to Neolithic 94

Artifacts reworked by later people 4, 25

Asiatic migrations after the Wisconsin Glacial epoch.... 175
Assaria, plain and buttes 144

Axes of hematite in Dr. Whelpley's collection, St. Louis. 157

Barnard, W. C. described the Seneca, Mo. rude artifacts 167

Barrett, S. A. found Paleolithic blade in the Milwaukee
museum ' 166

Beardstown, Cass. Co., 111., deposit in cache of 150 blades 160

Big Blue valley, its terraces 135

Blackman, E. E. found Quivira artifacts near Holmes-

ville, Neb 151

Black Mould of Kent's cavern 20

Blades, their variations 122

Blue-gray chert requires longer time than gray for pat-

ination 102

Blue Springs, Neb., extensive chert quarries 152

Brower, J. V., Opinion as to the occurrence of Paleolithic

Man 5

Brower, J. V., The "Quivera" culture and Paleolithic

Man 1

Brower, J. V., erected monuments commemorating

Quivira 5

Brown, Chas. E , found Early Neolithic point from

Wisconsin 169

Brown hematite (iron mould), distribution and origin. 73, 128

Boulder-clays of successive dates 109

Buchanan Inter-glacial epoch and its people 55

Buffalo probable in Early Neolithic time 57

Buffalo unknown to Paleolithic man 42, 53

Burnett's mound and its shore lines 149

178 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Caches at Richland City, W is 169

Caddo stock included the Quivira and the Harahey 46

Calvin, Prof. S., Aftonian fossils in Iowa 51

Cave-earth of Kent cavern, its pre-Glacial date 21

Celts and their variations 122

Celt like that of Nevvcomerstown, O 123

Celt of Early Neolithic not of the same purpose as that
of Neolithic 124

Celts of hematite in Dr. Whelpley's collection 157

Celt of Neolithic date 124

Characteristics of river drift articles, Evans 23

Characters of Kansas Paleolithic Artifacts 26

Chemical environment efficient in giving color to the
weather scale 84

Chert disintegrates sometimes with conchoidal surfaces. 139

Chert gravel accumulated by pre-Wisconsin drainage... 139

Chert disintegrates after long exposure 154

Chert, nature and mode of occurrence 6

Chert of two sorts of grain 80

Chicago, the Field museum and its Paleolithic material.. 163

Chipping of three dates 63, 71

Chronology of the stone age in England, Sturge 105

Cincinnati, museum of the Society of Natural History

and the Art Museum *. 159

Classification of artifacts in four time-groups 171

Classification of Kansas artifacts by culture stages 113

Cleneay collection at the Art Museum, Cincinnati, O.... 159
Cleveland, O., museum of the Western Reserve Histori-
cal Society 162

Collections from "Quivira"' village sites 5

Columbus, O., museum of the Ohio Archeological and
Historical Society 161

Comparison with European Paleoliths 13

Conclusions 173

Continuation of Paleolithic culture 98

Coronado explored the province of Quivira 45

Coronado monuments commemorating Quivira 5

Cragin called the volcanic dust pearlette beds 144

Crawford, James, collection of Paleolithic artifacts 152

Crescent, Mo., rude artifacts seen at Madison 167

Criteria of different ages of weathering 76

Critical working observations on some Kansas speci-
mens •' 68, 81

Crollian hypothesis, accepted by Sturge 107

Cultural stages of stone chipping correlated with Glacial

stages 41

Culture stages can hardly be assigned to definite Glacial
dates 104

* INDEX. 179

Culture stages, manner of succession 79. 113

Decaying organic matter as agent in weathering 84

Differences of patination in England, St urge 106

Different rates of Patination ■ 102, 103

Different signs of age 97

Disrupted brick clay mingled with till Ill

Distribution of iron mould 73, 128

Dreball site paleoliths 59, 60

Earlier distinction based on weathering 50

Early Man and his cotemporary Fauna in Kansas 4S

Early Neolithic characteristic implements . 43

Earl}' Neolithic culture ' 56, 171

Early Neolithic culture No. 2 130

Early Neolithic man not ambidextral 172

Early Neolithic point from Wisconsin 169

Early Neolithic preferred to Pre-Neolithic 103

Early Neolithic shades into Neolithic 76

Early Neolithic specimens, relative numbers S3

Early Neolithic weathered surface 79

Early Paleolithic. Paleolithic and Early Neolithic chip-
ping on the same specimen 87

Early Paleolithic surfaces 34, 76

Edge, acquirement of, by the Paleolithic artizan . 26, 42. 93, 113

Effect of the Ice-age 21

Equus beds equivalent of the Megalonyx beds 53

Esquimo possibly in Kansas 130

Evans, Sir John. Changes in the implements from

Kent cavern ,. 20

Evans, Sir John. Characters of European Paleoliths .. 3, 23

Evidences of Pre-GIacial man in Amercia 175

Explanation of plates 5S

Extent of Kaw lake in the Kansas valley 149

Extremes of culture contrasted 125

Fauna of Kent's cavern 20

Fauna cotemporary with Early Man 48

Feuardcnt, France, Paleoliths from 12, 58

Flint ridge. Licking Co., Ohio 161

Flood of 1903 at Lindsborg and northward 145

Flood of the Iowan Glacial epoch 56, 173

Fort Riley, its situation 140

ISO WEATHERING OF STOXE ARTIFACTS.

Geographic limitation of the "Quivira" artifacts im-

possible 41

Gilder, R. P.. collection from the '•Spanish* diggings,"

Wyoming . . 168

Glacial Patina, a calcareous incrustation 10, 12, 69, 78

Glacial Period, review of 50

Glacial striation in Minnesota 110

Gloss dependent on the grain of the chert 80

Gloss, its acquirement the first change 29, 172

Gloss may sometimes have been lost 85, 89, 91

Glossy patina on Kansas artifacts . 8

Gouges, natural and chipped 117

Gradation of culture stages 79, 98, 104

Granitic boulders of southern Minnesota probably of

Kansas date 58

Grinnell, George Bird, on the relations of the Pawnee... 46

Gumbo in the Rig Blue valley 136

Habitations of man in pre- Wisconsin time have disap-
peared 49

Harahey knife, a special type 116

Harahey knife, imperfect examples 101, 128

Haraheyan people at war with some Dakota tribe 45

Haraheyan people, location of 4, 171

Haraheyan people rechipped the upland paleoliths 41

Haraheyan people, relation to the Glacial drift 40

Hematite implements in Dr. Whelpley's collection 157

Hematite specimens in Vermont 158

Hematite specimens in the Art Museum, Cincinnati 160

Henderson, Robert, extreme limit of northern drift 140

Henderson. Robert, found quartzyte implements on his

farm '. 140

Flendrick creek, locality of Early Neolithic artifacts 138

Hodge, F. \V., has shown who were the Quivira and the

Harahey 46

Holmesville. Neb., chert-bearing limestone ' 151

Holmes, W. H.. actuality of series as defined by him.... 94

Hopewell and Clark mounds, Ross Co., O., large cache

found by Moorhead 164

Human implements in England coeval with pre-Glacial

time 22

Hrdlicka, Ales, Lansing man related to the present

Indian

Ice-dam near Wamego

Illinoisan Glacial epoch

Incipient scraper. Early Neolithic...
Indian, historic, his ancestry very old

148
55
93

174

INDEX. 181

Intrusive culture in Neolithic time 129, 172

Iowan Glacial epoch and the Loess 56, 173

Iowan glaciation comparable with the Pre-Kansan 57

Iro n in solution in water as agent of weathering 85

Iron Mould on stone artifacts 72, 107

Junction City terraces and profile across the valley.. 139, 140

Kansas artifacts of three successive dates 170

Kansan glaciation similar to Wisconsin 57

Kansas ice epoch and its effect on Kansas 54

Kansas City. Mo., collections of M. C. Long and the
Public Library 156

Kansas Paleoliths of large size 59, 60

Kansas valley, elevations above tide water 133

Kaw lake, its origin and extent.- 147

Kcagy, J. T., Aid to Mr. Brower 5

Keagy, J. T., Aid to the author 68

Kent cavern, Torquay. Relations of its implements,

Evans 20

Kidney Iron ore used for implements 157, 160

Knives, various dates and styles 115

Lansing man an Early Neolithic of the Iowan epoch.... 173

Lansing skull and bones discredited by some authorities. 174

"Leaves and Turtles", product of Paleolithic man 27

Leaves or blades and "turtles," became more ornate.... 114

Lefthandedness of Early Neolithic man 99

Le Moustier cavern, >pccimens from 18

Le Moustier people later than the "river drift" people... 19

Limestone area of Kansas not covered by lacustrine clay 39

Limitation of the terms Paleolithic and Early Neolithic. 93

Limonite deposits 34

Lincoln. Neb., museum of the Nebraska Historical

Society 151

Lindsborg. lake plain of Udden 144

Loess of aqueous origin 49, 56

Loess on Hendrick creek 13S

Long, M. C-j specimens made of "cotton rock" 157

Loss of a glossy surface 91

Madison. Wis., museum of the Wisconsin Historical

Society 167

Mammal remains of the river drift and of the cave earth 21
Manhattan, profile section of the valley 135

182 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Man in Kansas in the pre-Kansan age 52

Man's remains to be expected on the upland in Iowan

time 49

McPherson, collection of Dr. V. X. Robb 155

McPherson lies in the great north-south trough 145

Mill Creek valley embraces the oldest and the newest... 40

Mills, W. C, exploration of the Harness mound 161

Mills, W. C, found the Xewcomerstown Paleolith 123

Milwaukee. Public Museum contains a Wisconsin Paleo-
lithic blade 166

Mingling of Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts 40

Missouri river in the Iowan Glacial epoch 56

Moraines, glacial, relation to distribution of artifacts.... 98

Moraine of the Kansan ice-sheet 54

Mousterian age at Suffolk, England 112

Museums and private collections in several states 151

Neolithic art necessarily a successor to Paleolithic 95

Neolithic as used in this article 79

Neolithic distinguished from Early Neolithic 57

Neolithic of America substantially cotemporary with the

Bronze age 175

Neolithic man in England according to S'turge 6S

Neolithic No. 1, intrusive in Neolithic time 130, 172

Neolithic period of culture was of great length 157

Neolithic surfaces are neither weathered nor glossy 79

Neolithic time in England according to Sturge 107

Neolithic "turtle" -. . 93

Newark, O., the flint ridge of Licking Co 161

New Cambria, plains and terraces 142

Newcomerstown Paleolith, its characters 162

Xewcomerstown Paleolith compared with one from

Kansas 123

Origin of the Kansas chert 6

Origin of iron mould 73, 128

Origin of Kaw lake 14~

Padilla, manner of his death 45

Paleolithic artifacts mingled with Neolithic 40, 171

Paleolithic art, relation to Neolithic 95

Paleolithic artifacts of Europe compared to the "Quivira"

artifacts *

Paleolithic artizan, oldest, and his skill 26, S3

Paleolithic, as a term, significance and use 28, 171

Paleolithic chipping 30> 33

; V.

INDEX. 183

Paleolithic culture in Neolithic time 70, 94, 98, 172

Paleolithic culture of the "Quivira'* artifacts 2

Paleolithic implements have been used 69

Paleolithic or Early Paleolithic? 90

Paleolithic man in America beyond "reasonable doubt".. 175

Paleolithic patina scale serves as a protection 155

Paleolithic time in England, according to Sturge 107

Paleolithic weathering 7, 77, 103

Paleoliths of large size 59, 60

Patination in England, according to Sturge 68

Patina of European Paleoliths 17

Patina characteristic of the different ages 76

Patina, of different kinds 8, 76

Patina of Kansas Paleoliths 29

Patination of chert 6, 76

Pawnee, the Harahey of Coronado's visit 171

People of the lowan Glacial epoch 173

Permo-Carboniferous of Kansas is' chert-bearing 6

Perkins, Geo. H., axe of clay iron stone in Vermont.... 158

Persistence of Paleolithic culture 82, 94. 172

Physical conditions of the "Quivirans." Brower 42

Pink chert from Missouri 75

Pink shade in the Kansas chert 80, SI, 92

Points of coarse chipping but Neolithic culture 128

Points were sometimes used as knives 80

Polished or "ground" implements are of Neolithic date.. 104

Post-Kansan people 55

Pre-Cretaceous chert exposure 7

Pre-Glacial man found in the principal divisions cf the

globe 174

Prehistoric Society of East Anglia 68, 104

Pre-Kansan glacial lake-. 51

Pre-Kansan moraine not yet discovered 53

Preliminary note -. . .- ... 1

Pre-Paleolithic and Early' Paleolithic 103

Pre-Paleolithic surfaces, how altered 77

Primitive man in the Somme valley. Upham 2

Protolithic stone age of McGee ... 42

Putnam. F. YY.. Suggestions by 68

Quivira (The) and the Harahey were at peace 46

Quivira a province and not a village site 45

''Quivira'" artifacts have been reworked by later people.. 3

"Quivira" artifacts, where found 4

Quivira chert, nature of 6

"Quivira*" culture according to Dr. Thomas Wilson 1

"Quivira" culture and its extension to Nebraska 154

184 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

"Quivira" knife 65, 70

Quivira people, location of 4, 5

"Quiviran" implements were not from the Wichita 6

Quartzyte scraper from the local drift 90

Rechipping of old artifacts.- 30, 87

Rectangular shape in Paleolithic artifacts 29

Relation of Kansan artifacts to the drift 39

Resume and conclusions 169

Richey, W. E., collection in the Kansas Historical So-
ciety 155

Robb, Dr. V. X., collection of Paleoliths 155

Rotting of chert by atmospheric exposure 154

Roughness which denotes age 97

Rude forms both Paleolithic and Neolithic 95

Ryerson Swiss Lake collection contains only Neolithic
stone artifacts , 166

Saint Louis, collection of Dr. H. M. Whelpley 157

Salina. terrace and Cretaceous section 143

Salt creek valley in Nebraska 151

Scraper, incipient 93

Scrapers, natural and conventionally mono-beveled 118

Scraper, typical 7 97, 118

Scrapers under-cut indicating the right and the left hand 100

Seneca, Mo., rude artifacts 167

'Separation of artifacts into separate ages by difference
of patination 49

Siderite (kidney iron ore) used for celts 158, 161

Simplest artifact an edged tool 113

Smoky hills, location and 'composition 145

Smyth, B. B., guidance to Burnett mound 14S

Smyth, B. B. on Kaw lake..'. 147

Spades, of dense light-colored chert in Union Co, 111.... 15S
Spanish Diggings, rude artifacts from W yoming. ... ICS, 169

Stalagmite layer in the Kent cavern 20

Stone working of different dates 4

Striation of patinated artifacts in England 107, 109

Sturge, Dr. YV. Allen, recent studies of Neolithic cul-
ture 68, 104

Succession of events in Pleistocene time 23

Successive dates of Kansas artifacts 170

Successive peoples responsible for the Kansas artifacts . 26, 177

Successive weather scales 89

Supplemental Note, the basis of the argument 44

Terraces of the Kansas valley 92, 133, 14S

Thetford, Eng.. Paleolith from 16, 5S

INDEX. 185

Time intervals of early man 171

Todd, J. E., aid to the author 68

Todd, J. E.. map showing the Glaeial geology 4

Tomahawk, about coeval with the scraper 120

Tomahawk, a doubtful Paleolithic implement 27, 43

Tomahawks have never been withed 9G

Tomahawk people Early Neolithic 92

Tomahawks sometimes show the Glacial patina 32

Topeka. collection of W. E. Richey 155

Tribes met by Coronado in 1541 44

"Turtles" as Kansas Xeoliths 93, 114

"Turtles" as Kansas Paleoliths 27, 114

Types of Recent (or Neolithic) artifacts 34

Typical tomahawk illustrated 127

Udden. Prof. J. A.., Discussion of" the Megalonyx beds

in Kansas 50

Udden lake covered the Kansas valley above Abilene... 146
Udden. J. A., trough extending southward from the

Smoky Hill valley 144

Unfinished edges on "turtles" 85

Uniformity of the Kansas chert 90

Upham. Warren. Primitive man in the Somme valley... 2

Variation of the chert 75

Volcanic dust in the great north-south valley in McPher-

son Co 144

Volk. Ernest, in the Delaware valley 50

Wamego. relation to the moraine and to a river terrace. 137
Ward. H. L.. furnished photograph of a Wisconsin

paleolithic blade 167

Weathering of aboriginal stone artifacts 3

Weathering of different ages 76

Weather scales are sometimes white and sometimes

brown 83

Welin. J. E., volcanic dust in McPherson county 144

Whelpley. Dr. W. H., large collection at Saint Louis.... 15S
Wichita, not responsible for the "Quivira" implements . 6, 170

Wichita, the actual Quivira 46, 171

Wilson. Dr. Thomas. Letter on the rude culture of the

Quivira 1

Wisconsin glaciation similar to the Kansan 57

Wisconsin Glacial epoch and the ancestry of the historic

Indian 174

Wisconsin Paleolithic blade in the Milwaukee Public

Museum 166

18(5 WEATHERING OF STONE ARTIFACTS.

Wright, G. F.. has described the Xewcomerstown Pale-
olith 123. 163

Wymore, Xeb., paleolithic artifacts of Mr. James Craw-
ford 152

Ysopete, Quiviran guide of Coronado 44

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